1. Introduction
âWhere does what I believe come from?â This simple question is rarely asked of religions that present themselves as revealed. It is taken for granted that the Qurâan came down from heaven, that the hadiths â those tens of thousands of reports attributed to the Prophet Muhammad â transmit his words and deeds, and that the whole forms a coherent edifice. But what happens when these traditions are examined not as historical archives but as literary texts, comparable to other texts of late antiquity? What does one discover when the hadith is placed back within the great current of learning â Greek, Jewish, Christian, pre-Islamic Arab â that ran through the Near East at the time of its formation?
This article, the first part of a dossier devoted to the literary origins of the hadith, presents the results of an inquiry conducted on sixteen concrete cases, chosen for their capacity to reveal the mechanisms by which the tradition was made. The point is not to pronounce âtrueâ or âfalse,â but to understand how a corpus of texts is built, how it rearranges earlier materials, and how it invents an original mode of authorization that belongs properly neither to the archive nor to forgery.
The plan is as follows. We begin by setting out the central hypothesis and the methodological framework. We then present the sixteen cases, grouped into three families according to the type of operation they illustrate: borrowing and adaptation, drash in the strong sense, and the limit-cases that reveal the rule. A synthesis draws the lessons of the dossier, before a conclusion that opens onto the questions these results pose to contemporary scholarship.
2. The framework of the inquiry
The hypothesis
The hadith corpus is neither a historical archive nor a forgery. It is the product of an interpretive gesture â a rearrangement of ancient knowledge and literary materials (Greek, Jewish, Christian, pre-Islamic Arab) placed under a new authority. This gesture is analogous to the midrashic gesture practised by the Jewish rabbis, but within the economy of Islam it occupies the structural position that the Mishnah occupies in rabbinic Judaism â not that of the midrash.
To put it differently: in Judaism, the midrash comments on a verse of the Torah; in Islam, it is the tafsÄ«r (Qurâanic commentary) that plays this role. The hadith, for its part, does not comment on a verse: it states norms, narratives and doctrines organized by legal topic â exactly as the Mishnah organizes Jewish law without following the order of the biblical verses. The hadith is mishnaic, not midrashic.
The structural table
| Function | Rabbinic Judaism | Islam |
|---|---|---|
| Lemmatic organization (follows the verse) | Midrash (Mekhilta, Sifra, Rabbah) | TafsÄ«r bi-l-maÊŸthĆ«r |
| Thematic organization (follows the chapters of the law) | Mishnah, Tosefta | MuáčŁannaf (BukhÄrÄ«, Muslim, MÄlik) |
| Layer of commentary | Gemara | Sharង (Ibn កajar, al-Nawawī) |
| Guarantor of transmission | âRabbi X said in the name of Rabbi Yâ | IsnÄd (âso-and-so reported to us, on the authority of so-and-soâŠâ) |
The methodological consequence is decisive: the hadith has no lemma. Where the midrash is anchored in a verse, the hadith is anchored in a chain of transmitters. It is this substitution â the lemma replaced by the chain â that constitutes the proper object of the inquiry.
An important corollary: when a hadith recovers a scriptural anchor (when it harmonizes a received material with a Qurâanic verse), we are dealing with drash in the strong sense, no longer with mere mishnaic transmission. Cases B, H, I and L below are of this type â they are the most probative in the dossier.
The analytical grid
Each case is examined according to the same six-point grid:
- The hadith â references, text, canonical status.
- The prior material â identified source, reference, degree of certainty of the filiation.
- The type of operation â borrowing (diffusion of a topos, no interpretive gesture), adaptation (Islamization of the setting, function unchanged), drash (scriptural anchor + formal operation + shift of meaning), or borrowing of form (the mould is received, the content is proper).
- The formal marks â narrative amplification, families of variants, play on the root, numerical transformation, intertextual harmonization.
- The substituted anchor â which guarantor replaces which guarantor.
- The function in the present of the redaction.
State of research and point of originality
The late date of the hadith corpus and its juridico-political function have been established results of Orientalist scholarship since the end of the nineteenth century. IgnĂĄc Goldziher (Muhammedanische Studien, 1890) showed that many hadiths reflect the theological and political debates of the second and third centuries of the Hijra rather than the actual words of the Prophet. Joseph Schacht (Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence, 1950) demonstrated the backward growth of the chains of transmission: the further back one goes in time, the longer and more systematic the chains become, which suggests that they were fabricated retrospectively. G. H. A. Juynboll (Muslim Tradition, 1983) refined the âcommon linkâ method for identifying the branching points of the chains. Schachtâs dating has been contested by Harald Motzki, who holds that certain traditions may be older than Schacht allowed.
This paradigm is judicial: it speaks of authenticity and falsification. Goldziher himself noted the kinship between hadith and haggadah (the Jewish homiletic narrative) and catalogued rabbinic sayings that passed into BukhÄrÄ«âs collection. But he did so within a framework of âJewish influenceâ â that is, in terms of borrowed content, not in terms of literary genre.
Structural comparison has been carried out on the side of narrative: Uri Rubin (Between Bible and QurÊŸÄn, 1999), Shari Lowin (The Making of a Forefather, 2006) and Roberto Tottoli (on the stories of the prophets) have compared Islamic and Jewish narrative traditions. But these works bear on the exegetical narrative corpus, not on the canonical hadith as a form.
The point of originality of the present inquiry is this: to treat the hadith neither as borrowed content nor as a fake, but as a regime of authorization â and to pose the question of the migration of the guarantor of truth (from the biblical verse to the chain of transmitters, then to the imam) as an object in its own right.
3. The cases: borrowings, adaptations and drash
Case A â The fly: medical knowledge turned prophetic saying
The hadith. âIf a fly falls into the drink of one of you, let him dip it in entirely and then take it out, for in one of its wings there is disease and in the other a cure.â Reported by BukhÄrÄ« (in the book of the Beginning of Creation), AbĆ« DÄwĆ«d and Ibn MÄja. Status: fully canonical (áčŁaងīង) â which is what makes it interesting.
The prior material. Oded Zinger, in an article published in 2016 in the journal Arabica, proposed the cantharid â the famous âSpanish flyâ of Greco-Roman medical literature. Pliny the Elder describes an insect that is at once a violent poison and a therapeutic principle once compounded. Zinger explicitly rules out a late-antique Jewish origin. The structure is that of the pharmakon: the remedy is drawn from the venom, as in theriac.
The operation. Adaptation, not drash. No scriptural anchor, no operation on the letter of a text. A piece of Greek medical knowledge becomes a prophetic saying by a simple change of guarantor: the authority of the physician is replaced by the chain of transmission. Nothing of the original guarantor survives.
The formal marks. The binary symmetry (one wing carries the disease, the other the cure) is a mnemonic shaping typical of oral tradition, absent from the Greek medical source. It is the signature of narrative work, not of mere transcription.
The function. To found a prophetic competence in matters of nature. This hadith is the stem cell of the genre known as âprophetic medicineâ (al-áčibb al-nabawÄ«), developed by authors such as Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya or al-DhahabÄ«, who systematically back-project Galenic humoral medicine into the mouth of the Prophet. Zinger further shows how medieval scholars had to defend this hadith against the Greco-Islamic science of their day: the seam between the borrowed knowledge and the new guarantor remains visible.
Verdict. Plausible and documented filiation, but a weak operation. This case proves rearrangement, not drash. It is the best pedagogical entry point for understanding the method, and the worst theoretical argument for demonstrating the thesis. To be used as such.
Case B â The five keys of the unseen: a complete drash
The hadith. âThe keys of the unseen are fiveâ: the final Hour; the descent of the rain; what is in the wombs; what each will earn tomorrow; in what land he will die. Reported by BukhÄrÄ«.
The prior material. The Babylonian Talmud (tractate TaÊżanit 2a): Rabbi Yoáž„anan teaches that there are three keys God has entrusted to no messenger â the key of rain, the key of the woman in childbirth, and the key of the resurrection of the dead.
The operation. Drash in the strong sense. Three operations are superimposed:
- Anchoring: the hadith does not simply take over the rabbinic list. It reads it against Qurâan 31:34, which enumerates precisely five objects reserved to divine knowledge, and borrows its title from Qurâan 6:59: âWith Him are the keys of the unseen.â The Qurâanic lemma is indeed there.
- Numerical transformation: the list goes from three to five, under the constraint of the verse. This is a classic midrashic procedure: the received list is readjusted to the number in the sacred text.
- Shift of meaning: for Rabbi Yoáž„anan, the keys express the inalienability of a power â God has delegated these keys to no one. In the hadith, they express the inaccessibility of a knowledge â man cannot know these things. One passes from the register of power to that of knowledge. This is exactly the theological shift to be expected in a context where the question of prophetic foreknowledge is disputed.
The formal marks. The metaphor of the key is preserved. Two of the three rabbinic items are retained (the rain; the woman in childbirth, become âwhat is in the wombsâ). The third (the resurrection) is dropped, and two properly Qurâanic items are added (tomorrowâs earnings, the place of death). This profile â core preserved, periphery recomposed under the constraint of the verse â is the signature of exegetical work, not of simple borrowing.
The anchor. Here the anchor is restored: the chain of transmitters leans on the Qurâanic verse. The hadith functions as a commentary (tafsÄ«r) disguised as tradition (sunna).
The function. To close, by way of tradition, a question the Qurâan leaves open: how far does the Prophetâs knowledge extend? The answer is restrictive, and serves to limit claims to foreknowledge.
Verdict. The central case of the dossier. If the filiation from TaÊżanit to the hadith is confirmed, we have a complete demonstration: lemma + received material + formal operation + theological shift.
Case C â The gharqad: narrative amplification
The hadith. On the Day of Judgment, the stones and the trees denounce the Jews hiding behind them, except the gharqad tree, which is the tree of the Jews. Reported by Muslim; a shorter, earlier version is found in BukhÄrÄ«.
The prior material. Late-antique apocalyptic stock, probably of Syriac origin.
The operation. Adaptation with narrative amplification.
The formal marks. It is here that the dossier finds its proof of textual growth: the short version in BukhÄrÄ« is narratively enriched in Muslim. The gharqad tree appears in the amplified version. The botanical uncertainty about the identity of this tree and the absence of any Qurâanic basis confirm that it is a traditional addition. The text grows between two canonical collections: this is the behaviour of an aggadic tradition (homiletic narrative), not of a verbatim record.
The function. Eschatological. This hadith was never treated as a legal norm by the classical commentators â until its literal citation in the Hamas Charter (1988), which performs precisely the illegitimate conversion of an aggadic narrative into a legal norm (halakha).
Verdict. The value of this case is methodological: it supplies the formal mark of amplification between recensions, which we shall look for in the other cases.
Case D â The logia of Jesus: annexing a rival authority
The corpus. Around three hundred sayings attributed to Jesus in the Islamic literature of asceticism (zuhd) and belles-lettres (adab), catalogued by Tarif Khalidi (The Muslim Jesus, 2001). Status: marginal in the canonical (áčŁaងīង) collections, central in ascetic and Sufi literature.
The prior material. Rewritten Gospel logia; apophthegms of the Desert Fathers; Syriac monastic wisdom.
The operation. Adaptation predominates, with cases of ascetic drash: the Gospel saying is bent toward a doctrine of detachment proper to zuhd.
The anchor. A remarkable case: the guarantor remains Jesus. This is therefore not a substitution but an annexation. The Islamic corpus appropriates a rival authority without erasing it. This is an intermediate position between anonymous borrowing (case A) and prophetic attribution.
The function. To give nascent Muslim asceticism a genealogy, at a moment when Christian monasticism remains the available model of renunciation.
Verdict. The richest case quantitatively, the least advanced analytically. A worksite in its own right.
Case E â âI was a hidden treasureâ: the avowed drash
The hadith. âI was a hidden treasure; I loved to be known; therefore I created creation in order to be known.â This hadith qudsÄ« (a reported divine utterance) is absent from every canonical collection. Al-SakhÄwÄ« and al-ÊżAjlĆ«nÄ« note that it has no chain of transmission. It is nevertheless universally cited by the Sufis.
The prior material. The Neoplatonic and Gnostic stock of emanation: the One diffuses itself out of love of knowledge.
The operation. Pure drash, and avowed as such. Ibn ÊżArabÄ« maintains that traditions can be authenticated by unveiling (kashf) rather than by the chain of transmitters. The drashic criterion enters into open competition with the philological criterion.
The anchor. Neither lemma nor chain: the experience of the interpreter. This is a fourth position of the guarantor.
The function. To found a cosmology of love and knowledge that has no direct Qurâanic support.
Verdict. A limit-case that reveals the rule. The system itself produces traditions that everyone knows are not âauthenticâ and that are nevertheless held to be true. The category of authenticity therefore does not account for what the corpus does.
Case F â The meta-clue: the systemâs internal admission
This is not a case but a fact of doctrine, and it is perhaps the strongest argument in the dossier.
The classical rule â attributed to Aáž„mad b. កanbal and ÊżAbd al-Raáž„mÄn b. MahdÄ«, codified by Ibn កajar â holds that a weak hadith (ážaÊżÄ«f) is admissible for moral exhortation (the merits of deeds, encouragement and deterrence), but inadmissible in law.
In other words: the tradition has a threshold of veracity that varies with the function of the text. The strict regime applies to the legal norm (halakha), a loose regime to the homiletic narrative (aggadah). This is the explicit recognition, by the system itself, that part of its corpus does not operate in the mode of historical attestation.
One must add the category of the isrÄÊŸÄ«liyyÄt: the tradition names and classifies the Jewish and Christian materials it integrates. It never believed it was creating ex nihilo.
Case G â ÊżÄshĆ«rÄÊŸ: the tradition that narrates its own borrowing
The hadith. âWhen the Prophet arrived in Medina, he saw that the Jews observed the tenth day of Muáž„arram and fasted on that day. He said: We have more right to this day than you, and he ordered that it be fasted.â (BukhÄrÄ« 3942.)
The prior material. The fast of the tenth of Tishri â Yom Kippur. Leviticus 16:29 and 23:27 prescribe: âon the tenth day of the month.â
The operation. Drash in the strong sense, and in its rarest mode: it is the etymology that carries the operation. ÊżÄshĆ«rÄÊŸ is an Aramaic word â Syriac ÊżasorÄ means âtenthâ â from the same root as Hebrew Êżasor. The Arabic name preserves the Jewish date in its very form. This is not a concealed borrowing: the word says where it comes from.
The formal marks. Two, equally telling:
- The reversal of the claim: naáž„nu aáž„aqqu, âwe have more right.â The formula that authorizes the borrowing is the very one that delegitimizes it as a borrowing. This is a supersessionist gesture in its chemically pure state â and an explicit one.
- The calendrical decoupling: the shift to a purely lunar calendar detaches ÊżÄshĆ«rÄÊŸ from Tishri. The fast becomes supererogatory after the break with the Jewish tribes of Medina. The tradition preserves the trace of both moments: adoption and loosening.
The anchor. No Qurâanic lemma. But the authority invoked is not the Prophet alone: it is Moses, laid claim to. The guarantor is not replaced; it is disputed.
The function. To found a practice by claiming it from its holders rather than by denying it.
Verdict. The most eloquent case in the dossier for a non-specialist audience: the tradition itself stages the appropriation â the date, the source, the argument. There is nothing to demonstrate, only to read.
Case H â Fifty prayers brought down to five: a norm in narrative
The hadith. During the night ascension (miÊżrÄj), fifty prayers are prescribed. Moses sends the Prophet back to God: âReturn to your Lord, your community will not be able to bear it.â The number decreases by steps â fifty, twenty-five, twelve, six â down to five. Final divine answer: âThey are five prayers, and they are worth fifty; my word does not change.â (BukhÄrÄ«.)
The prior material. Two sources:
- The negotiating Moses of the rabbinic aggadah, who argues with God and makes him reverse his decision. In the Talmud (Berakhot 32a), Moses âseized the Holy One, blessed be He, by his garmentâ and refused to let go.
- The topos of tenfold reward, anchored here in Qurâan 6:160: âwhoever comes with a good deed shall have ten like it.â
The operation. Drash in the strong sense. The narrative resolves a legal contradiction: how can an obligation be both fixed by God and modified? Answer: it is not. Five times ten is fifty. The word does not change. Arithmetic saves divine immutability.
The formal marks. Numerical transformation under the constraint of a verse â the same signature as in case B. And a borrowed character-function: Moses is the one who knows from experience that a community does not keep its obligations. The allusion to the weight of the Mosaic Law is transparent.
The anchor. Restored: verse 6:160 holds the calculation together.
The function. An aetiology of the number five â which the Qurâan nowhere prescribes. This is the canonical example of a norm without a lemma, later endowed with a founding narrative: exactly what the aggadah does for the halakha.
Verdict. The second strong piece in the dossier, and the most demonstrative as to function: here the narrative does not decorate the norm, it manufactures it.
Case I â âGod created Adam in his imageâ: a biblical lemma grafted onto the Qurâanic lexicon
The hadith. âGod created Adam in his image (áčŁĆ«ra), his height being sixty cubits.â (BukhÄrÄ« 6227.)
The prior material. Genesis 1:26-27: âin our image, after our likeness.â The passage through the Arabic root áčą-W-R is decisive: Arabic áčŁĆ«ra answers to Hebrew tsurah (form), and the Qurâan knows this root perfectly well â âHe formed you and made your forms beautifulâ (Qurâan 64:3) â as well as the divine name al-MuáčŁawwir, âthe Fashioner.â The hadith plugs the Genesis verse into the Qurâanic lexicon of formation.
The operation. Drash in the strong sense, with a heavy theological consequence: the Qurâan affirms divine non-resemblance (âthere is nothing like unto Him,â Qurâan 42:11). The hadith introduces into the corpus a proposition the Qurâan excludes.
The formal marks. Exceptional: the variant betrays the work. Two recensions of the same hadith, in the same compiler, BukhÄrÄ«:
| Reference | Text | Clause âin his imageâ |
|---|---|---|
| BukhÄrÄ« 6227 | âin his image (áčŁĆ«ratihi), his height being sixty cubitsâ | present |
| BukhÄrÄ« 3326 | âhis height being sixty cubitsâ | absent |
The same utterance, transmitted by the same Companion (AbĆ« Hurayra), circulates with and without the theologically dangerous proposition. This is the best material proof in the dossier that a clause is added or removed as needed. The centuries of commentary on the antecedent of the pronoun â âhisâ image: Godâs? Adamâs? â are the fossil trace of this embarrassment.
The anchor. Biblical lemma, prophetic guarantor, Qurâanic lexicon: the three planes are superimposed in a single sentence.
Verdict. The best case in the dossier after B. It brings together an identifiable lemma, a shared Semitic root, a lexical operation, a theological shift, and material proof by variants.
Case J â Adam of sixty cubits: the primordial giant
The hadith. âAdam measures sixty cubits; men have not ceased to diminish in stature since.â (BukhÄrÄ« 3326 and 6227.)
The prior material. Rabbinic traditions on Adamâs cosmic stature, reduced after the fall. The Talmud (កagigah 12a): âAdam extended from the earth to the firmament; God laid his hand upon him and diminished him.â Bereshit Rabbah 8 and 12; Talmud Sanhedrin 38b.
The operation. Adaptation, with numerical fixation. The aggadah gives a giant with no stable figure; the hadith fixes sixty cubits â a sexagesimal number, of Mesopotamian ancestry.
The formal marks. The motif preserved is not the height but the continuous decrease â this is the most specific trait of the source, and it is the one that passes across.
The function. To inscribe humanity in a degradation from the origin. It is also the implicit argument of every authority founded on antiquity: the Companions are worth more than the Successors, and so on.
Verdict. A reinforcing case, whose value lies in its solidarity with case I: it is the same hadith. A single utterance carries both an aggadic borrowing (the height) and a lemmatic drash (the image). The composition is stratified.
Case K â Seventy-three sects: the arithmetic of one-upmanship
The hadith. âThe Jews divided into seventy-one sects, the Christians into seventy-two, and my community will divide into seventy-three â all in hell save one.â (TirmidhÄ«, Ibn MÄja, AbĆ« DÄwĆ«d.) Its authenticity is contested within the tradition itself: Ibn កazm rejects it; Ibn al-WazÄ«r notes its absence from the two major canonical collections.
The prior material. The topos of seventy: the seventy nations of Genesis 10 (seventy-two in the Septuagint), seventy elders, seventy languages, seventy-two translators. Throughout the Semitic world, 70 or 72 is the number of the totality of peoples.
The operation. Drash in the mode of ordinal one-upmanship: 71, then 72, then 73. Each tradition receives one notch more. The most recent is the most divided â which, in a logic of decadence, is as much an admission as a claim.
The formal marks. The series makes sense only relationally: none of the three numbers means anything in isolation; it is the gap of one that carries everything. The signature of a construction, not of an observation.
Note: the filiation to the topos of the seventy nations is a proposed reading, not a result established by scholarship. It must be investigated before any public use.
The function. To produce orthodoxy by subtraction â to define the saved community as a remainder (al-firqa al-nÄjiya, âthe saved groupâ).
Verdict. High polemical yield â it is the matrix of all later exclusivisms â and low philological security. To be handled with reserve.
Case L â The pen: the pre-existent instrument
The hadith. âThe first thing God created was the pen. He said to it: Write. It said: Lord, what shall I write? He said: Write the decree of all things until the Hour comes.â (TirmidhÄ«.)
The prior material. Two distinct strata:
- Bereshit Rabbah 1:1: the pre-existent Torah declares âI was the working tool of the Holy One, blessed be Heâ; God looks into the Torah and creates the world. The world is created by a writing that precedes it.
- The heavenly tablets of Enochic literature and the book of Jubilees, where the whole decree is inscribed in advance.
The operation. Drash in the strong sense. The hadith has two Qurâanic lemmas at its disposal: âby the pen and what they inscribeâ (Qurâan 68:1) and âthe preserved tabletâ (Qurâan 85:22). The Qurâan gives the pen and the tablet; the hadith gives them a chronology â the pen first â and a cosmological function that the Qurâan does not formulate.
The formal marks. Substitution of instrument: where the aggadah places the Torah as the blueprint of the work, the hadith places the writing tool. A remarkable shift: one passes from the text to the instrument, which is consistent with a theology in which the uncreated text is the Qurâan itself and cannot be duplicated.
The anchor. Restored, and double (Qurâan 68:1; 85:22).
The function. To found qadar (the divine decree): the decree is written before the world. This is the cosmological piece of the debate on predestination in the second and third centuries of the Hijra.
Verdict. A strong case, and the most interesting theologically: it shows a systemic constraint at work. The received material is adopted, but the element that would compete with the uncreated Qurâan (the pre-existent book) is replaced by a compatible element (the tool). Drash is not only transformation: it is transformation under doctrinal constraint.
Case M â The God of the last third of the night
The hadith. âOur Lord descends every night to the nearest heaven, when the last third of the night remains, and says: Who calls upon Me, that I may answer him? Who asks of Me, that I may give him? Who seeks My forgiveness, that I may forgive him?â (BukhÄrÄ«, Muslim.)
The prior material. The Talmud (Berakhot 3a): the night is divided into three watches; at each, God sits and roars like a lion, saying: âWoe to the children, on account of whose sins I destroyed my houseâŠâ There follows (3b) the motif of Davidâs harp waking at midnight and of the last watch of the night as the privileged time of prayer.
The operation. Drash, without a Qurâanic lemma. Three elements pass together and are found nowhere else in this form: the tripartite division of the night, the last watch as the privileged moment, and a God who speaks aloud in the night.
The formal marks. The inversion of the content of the nocturnal speech is the signature: among the rabbis, God laments the destruction of the Temple; in the hadith, he offers â answer, gift, forgiveness. The frame is preserved in its entirety; the content is turned from mourning to grace. This is exactly the type of transformation one expects from a tradition that inherits a liturgical structure without inheriting the mourning that motivated it.
The function. To found the supererogatory night prayer (tahajjud) by giving it a divine respondent.
Verdict. A major case, and the most consequential. This hadith is one of the principal battlefields of Islamic theology: the question of the divine descent (nuzĆ«l) occupied MuÊżtazilites, AshÊżarites and កanbalites for centuries, and still occupies contemporary Salafis. Yet the structure comes from a Jewish liturgical vigil. The anthropomorphism that has cost so much ink is not a datum of revelation: it is an inheritance of form.
Case N â âDeeds are only by intentionsâ
The hadith. âDeeds are only by intentions, and each has only what he intended.â This hadith is the first in BukhÄrÄ«âs collection, deliberately placed there â as a thesis on law set as an epigraph to the book.
The prior material. The rabbinic doctrine of kavvanah (directed intention): the Mishnah (Menaáž„ot 13:11) â âwhether one offers much or offers little, provided he directs his heart toward Heavenâ; the Talmud (Sanhedrin 106b) â âthe Merciful One demands the heart.â
The operation. Undecidable â and that is the interest of the case. Three readings are possible: independent convergence (the principle is too general to prove a filiation); a late-antique ethical koine (a principle shared across the whole Near East); drash. The second is the most probable hypothesis.
The function. To set out the principle that governs the whole of ritual law: the act without intention is void.
Verdict. A case that serves as a safeguard. It looks like a borrowing and perhaps is not one. It is kept in the dossier precisely for that reason: a dossier containing only conclusive cases would be suspect. It is here that the distinction between borrowing, koine and drash must be defended in practice.
Case O â The hadith of Gabriel: borrowing the mould
The hadith. A stranger sits down before the Prophet and questions him in turn: what is islÄm? what is Ä«mÄn (faith)? what is iáž„sÄn (excellence)? when will the Hour come? At each answer the stranger approves â âyou have spoken truly.â He departs; the Prophet says: âThat was Gabriel, come to teach you your religion.â (BukhÄrÄ«, Muslim.)
The prior material. Not a content but a genre: the erotapokriseis, the late-antique Christian literature of questions and answers, the catechetical form par excellence. More broadly, the didactic dialogue in which the questioner already knows the answer and asks in order to instruct the audience.
The operation. Borrowing of form. Nothing of the content is foreign to Islam; everything of the architecture is. This is a category the initial grid did not anticipate.
The formal marks. Three traits of the catechetical genre come together: the questioner who validates the answers, and therefore knows them; the graded progression from the visible to the inward (practice, then faith, then excellence); and the final revelation of the masterâs identity, which retroactively transforms the dialogue into authorized teaching.
The function. To produce a catechism: this hadith is, to this day, the standard definition of religion in three degrees.
Verdict. A decisive case for the typology. It forces the addition of a category: what is transmitted is not only material, it is also a format. And a transmitted format is harder to spot than a content â hence probably more frequent than it appears.
Case P â Circumcision: an institution without Qurâanic support
The corpus. Two interlocking traditions:
- âThe fiáčra (the native disposition) is five â circumcision, shaving the pubic hair, trimming the moustache, cutting the nails, plucking the armpits.â (BukhÄrÄ«.)
- âAbraham circumcised himself when past eighty, and he circumcised himself with an adze (qadĆ«m).â (BukhÄrÄ«.)
The decisive fact. Circumcision is absent from the Qurâan. Not one occurrence, not one allusion. The most identity-defining institution of Muslim practice rests entirely on the hadith.
The prior material. Genesis 17: the Abrahamic covenant. The hadith does not contest the origin: it claims it, as in case G, by way of Abraham rather than Moses.
The formal marks. Two anomalies, both telling:
- The age. Genesis 17:24 says that Abraham was circumcised at ninety-nine. The hadith says eighty. The gap is not an approximation: it is a different number, in a tradition where the ages of the patriarchs are scriptural data. What is this eighty doing here? An open question.
- The qadƫm. The classical commentators hesitate: is qadƫm the tool (an adze, a detail of brutal realism) or a toponym (a place in Syria)? The ambiguity is carried by the vocalization. This is exactly the kind of philological knot that drash exploits rather than resolves.
A third trait: the inscription in a list of five, which absorbs a covenant into a hygiene. The passage from the sign of the covenant to an item of fiáčra is a major theological shift, effected by the simple act of listing.
The function. To found a constitutive practice without scriptural support â and to naturalize it (fiáčra: the native disposition) rather than contractualize it (berit: the covenant).
Verdict. The most demonstrative case in the entire dossier, and the hardest to contest: there is no need to establish a fine textual filiation; it suffices to note an absence. If the hadith were an ornament of revelation, removing the hadith would leave Islam intact. Yet removing the hadith makes circumcision disappear, along with the number of five prayers (case H), ÊżÄshĆ«rÄÊŸ (case G) and the night prayer (case M). The corpus is not a supplement: it is load-bearing.
4. Control note: the Qurâan performs the same gesture
The Qurâan itself openly practises the rearrangement of earlier materials, which forbids treating this as an invention of the hadith. Qurâan 5:32 â âfor this reason We prescribed to the Children of Israel that whoever kills a soul⊠it is as if he had killed all mankindâ â cites Mishnah Sanhedrin 4:5, explicitly presenting it as an earlier prescription addressed to Israel.
Two consequences, despite the restriction of the corpus to the hadith:
- The hadith does not invent rearrangement; it changes its regime of avowal. The Qurâan cites by naming its source; the hadith cites by substituting its guarantor. This is precisely the difference between the lemma and the chain.
- Any critique that reproached the hadith for borrowing would strike the Qurâan as well. The argument is therefore not âthe hadith borrows,â but âthe hadith designates differently what it borrows.â
5. Synthesis
Summary table
| Case | Prior material | Operation | Anchor | Probative force |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A â the fly | Greek medicine (Pliny, cantharid) | adaptation | chain alone | weak (pedagogical) |
| B â the five keys | Talmud, TaÊżanit 2a | drash | restored lemma (Qurâan 31:34; 6:59) | strong |
| C â the gharqad | late-antique apocalyptic | adaptation + amplification | chain alone | methodological |
| D â logia of Jesus | Gospels, Desert Fathers | adaptation / annexation | guarantor preserved | to be investigated |
| E â hidden treasure | Neoplatonism | avowed drash | kashf (unveiling) | revealing |
| F â weak hadith / merits | â | â | â | the systemâs internal admission |
| G â ÊżÄshĆ«rÄÊŸ | Yom Kippur (Leviticus 16:29; 23:27) | etymological drash | disputed guarantor (Moses) | strong (the most legible) |
| H â 50 to 5 prayers | negotiating Moses (Berakhot 32a) | drash | restored lemma (Qurâan 6:160) | strong (aetiological function) |
| I â âin his imageâ | Genesis 1:26-27 | lexical drash | biblical lemma + Qurâanic lexicon | very strong (proof by variants) |
| J â sixty cubits | Talmud កagigah 12a; Bereshit Rabbah | adaptation | chain alone | reinforcement (stratification) |
| K â 73 sects | topos of the seventy nations | drash (one-upmanship) | weak chain | to be investigated (reserve) |
| L â the pen | Bereshit Rabbah 1:1; heavenly tablets | drash under constraint | double lemma (Qurâan 68:1; 85:22) | strong |
| M â the nuzĆ«l | Talmud Berakhot 3a | drash (frame kept, content reversed) | chain alone | very strong (theological stakes) |
| N â the niyya | Mishnah Menaáž„ot 13:11; Talmud Sanhedrin 106b | borrowing? koine? | chain alone | safeguard (undecidable) |
| O â hadith of Gabriel | erotapokriseis (genre) | borrowing of form | chain + angelic guarantor | typological |
| P â circumcision | Genesis 17 | institution without lemma | claimed guarantor (Abraham) | decisive |
What the dossier establishes
The corpus behaves like a traditionist literature with variable thresholds of veracity, which rearranges ancient materials under a substituted guarantor. The structural position is mishnaic; the operation is, depending on the case, borrowing, adaptation or genuine drash.
Six results that emerged in the course of the investigation
1. Stratification (cases I + J). A single hadith â Adam in his image, sixty cubits tall â carries simultaneously an aggadic borrowing and a lemmatic drash. The unit of analysis is therefore not the hadith but the utterance: a single tradition can be composite, each clause having its own history. This requires finer cutting than the initial grid anticipated.
2. The disputed guarantor (case G). ÊżÄshĆ«rÄÊŸ adds a fifth position to the typology of anchors: neither lemma, nor chain, nor kashf, nor imam â but the claim to a rival guarantor (âwe have more right to Moses than youâ). Authority is not substituted; it is disputed with its holder.
3. The regime of avowal. What distinguishes the hadith from the Qurâan is not that it borrows, but that it names its source differently. The theoretical note must bear on the regimes of designating origin, not on origin itself.
4. Borrowing of form (case O). What is transmitted is not only material: it is also a format â here, catechesis by question and answer. A transmitted format is harder to spot than a content, hence probably more frequent than it appears. The grid must gain a fourth category, alongside borrowing, adaptation and drash.
5. Transformation under doctrinal constraint (case L). The received material is not freely reworked: the element that would compete with an established dogma is replaced by a compatible equivalent. The pre-existent book becomes the pre-existent tool, because the place of the uncreated book is already held by the Qurâan. Drash works under systemic pressure.
6. The corpus is load-bearing, not ornamental (case P). Removing the hadith makes circumcision, the number of five prayers, ÊżÄshĆ«rÄÊŸ and the night prayer disappear. It is not a supplement to revelation; it is part of the structure. The question âis the hadith authentic?â is therefore badly posed: a negative answer would leave nothing standing, which is precisely the sign that we are not dealing with a documentary genre.
What the dossier does not establish
That every hadith is a midrash. The distinction of three degrees (borrowing, adaptation, drash) must remain operative, on pain of pan-midrashism: if every reuse is drash, the concept no longer discriminates anything.
6. Toward a theory: the displacement of the guarantor of truth
The inquiry suggests a single history, traversed by one and the same problem: how to authorize a new utterance in a world where only the old carries authority? Five solutions have been identified, which form as many positions of the guarantor of truth:
- The verse (the midrashic solution: the new legitimates itself by commentary on the old).
- The chain of transmitters (the mishnaic solution: the new legitimates itself by tracing back to the origin).
- The disputed guarantor (the supersessionist solution: the new legitimates itself by claiming the rivalâs guarantor â âwe have more right to Moses than youâ).
- The experience of the interpreter (the Sufi solution: the new legitimates itself by unveiling, kashf).
- The living person (the ShÄ«ÊżÄ« solution: the imam is the living guarantor of the continuing word â cf. Amir-Moezzi, Le Coran silencieux et le Coran parlant).
The Islamic doubling of the gesture is clear: the tafsīr keeps the lemma, the hadith keeps the chain. The hadith is mishnaic; the tafsīr is midrashic. The cases where a hadith recovers its lemma (cases B, H, I, L) are the points of contact between the two regimes, and they are the most instructive.
Graded veracity is a feature of the genre. The tradition distinguishes the strict hadith (admissible in law) from the weak hadith (admissible in moral exhortation). It names the isrÄÊŸÄ«liyyÄt. It accepts hadiths without a chain that are held to be true. The corpus never operated on a binary theory of true and false. It is modern readings â apologetic and polemical â that impose one on it.
The critical consequence is direct: contemporary literalism, by treating every canonical hadith as a legal norm, commits an error of genre. It reads aggadah as halakha. The gharqad hadith in the Hamas Charter is the most visible demonstration of this.
7. Conclusion
This inquiry proposes a change of perspective on the hadith. No longer: is it authentic? â a question that presupposes the corpus to be an archive and that does not know what to do with the answer, whatever it may be. But rather: what does the corpus do? How does it manufacture authority? What does it rearrange, and under what constraints?
The answer is that the hadith occupies in Islam the position the Mishnah occupies in Judaism: it organizes law and narrative not by following the order of the verses, but by following the order of the chapters of life. It has no lemma: it has a chain. And when, exceptionally, it recovers a lemma â when aggadah becomes drash â that is where the mechanism reveals itself most clearly.
What this inquiry opens, beyond the hadith, is a general theory of the migration of the guarantor of truth in religious traditions. The verse, the chain, the disputed guarantor, the unveiling, the living person: five answers to the same problem, five ways of saying that a new utterance has the right to be uttered. The history of religions is perhaps, in part, the history of these substitutions.
8. Bibliographical references
- IgnĂĄc Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, II, Halle, 1890.
- Joseph Schacht, The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence, Oxford, 1950.
- G. H. A. Juynboll, Muslim Tradition. Studies in Chronology, Provenance and Authorship of Early កadīth, Cambridge, 1983.
- Uri Rubin, Between Bible and QurÊŸÄn. The Children of Israel and the Islamic Self-Image, Princeton, 1999.
- Shari L. Lowin, The Making of a Forefather. Abraham in Islamic and Jewish Exegetical Narratives, Leiden, 2006.
- Tarif Khalidi, The Muslim Jesus. Sayings and Stories in Islamic Literature, Cambridge (Mass.), Harvard University Press, 2001.
- Oded Zinger, âTradition and Medicine on the Wings of a Fly,â Arabica 63/1-2, 2016, pp. 89-117.
- Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi, Le Coran silencieux et le Coran parlant. Sources scripturaires de lâislam entre histoire et ferveur, Paris, CNRS Ăditions, 2011.
- M. J. Kister, ââŠAnd he was born circumcisedâŠ: Some notes on circumcision in កadÄ«th,â Oriens 34, 1994, pp. 10-30.
- Roberto Tottoli, Biblical Prophets in the QurÊŸÄn and Muslim Literature, Richmond, 2002 (on the qiáčŁaáčŁ al-anbiyÄÊŸ, the stories of the prophets).
Note: simplified transcriptions of Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic.
9. Threads left open
The results of this inquiry call for several research questions, which the following parts of the dossier will have to take up:
- If the structure of one of the greatest theological debates in Islam (the divine descent, case M) is a Jewish liturgical inheritance, what becomes of the debate once it is resituated in its inter-religious context of formation? Must the history of Islamic theology be rewritten to take account of the archaeology of its forms?
- If the hadith is load-bearing and not ornamental (case P), what theory of religious authority accounts for a system in which practical norms rest on a corpus known to rearrange foreign materials? Must a theory of authority distinguish origin from function?
- If the unit of analysis is the utterance and not the hadith (cases I + J), what methods of material philology (collation of variants, stemmatics) can be applied to the hadith corpus in order to map the internal stratification of the traditions?
- If drash works under doctrinal constraint (case L), should the history of religions adopt a model of âtransformation under constraintâ that would account for the selection of transmitted elements according to the structure that receives them?
1. Introduction
« DâoĂč vient ce que je crois ? » Cette question, toute simple, est rarement posĂ©e Ă propos des religions qui se prĂ©sentent comme rĂ©vĂ©lĂ©es. On admet que le Coran descend du ciel, que les hadiths â ces dizaines de milliers de rĂ©cits attribuĂ©s au ProphĂšte Muhammad â transmettent ses paroles et ses gestes, et que lâensemble forme un Ă©difice cohĂ©rent. Mais que se passe-t-il lorsque lâon examine ces traditions non comme des archives historiques, mais comme des textes littĂ©raires, comparables Ă dâautres textes de lâAntiquitĂ© tardive ? Que dĂ©couvre-t-on lorsque lâon replace le hadith dans le grand courant des savoirs â grecs, juifs, chrĂ©tiens, arabes prĂ©islamiques â qui traversait le Proche-Orient au moment de sa formation ?
Cet article, premier volet dâun dossier consacrĂ© Ă lâorigine littĂ©raire des hadiths, prĂ©sente les rĂ©sultats dâune enquĂȘte conduite sur seize cas concrets, choisis pour leur capacitĂ© Ă rĂ©vĂ©ler les mĂ©canismes de fabrication de la tradition. Lâenjeu nâest pas de dire « vrai » ou « faux », mais de comprendre comment un corpus de textes se construit, comment il rĂ©agence des matĂ©riaux antĂ©rieurs, et comment il invente un mode dâautorisation original qui nâappartient en propre ni Ă lâarchive ni Ă la forgerie.
Le plan est le suivant. Nous commencerons par exposer lâhypothĂšse centrale et le cadre mĂ©thodologique. Puis nous prĂ©senterons les seize cas, regroupĂ©s en trois familles selon le type dâopĂ©ration quâils illustrent : lâemprunt et lâadaptation, le drash au sens fort, et les cas-limites qui rĂ©vĂšlent la rĂšgle. Une synthĂšse tirera les leçons du dossier, avant une conclusion ouverte sur les questions que ces rĂ©sultats posent Ă la recherche contemporaine.
2. Le cadre de lâenquĂȘte
LâhypothĂšse
Le corpus des hadiths nâest ni une archive historique ni une forgerie. Il est le produit dâun geste interprĂ©tatif â un rĂ©agencement de savoirs et de matĂ©riaux littĂ©raires antiques (grecs, juifs, chrĂ©tiens, arabes prĂ©islamiques) placĂ©s sous une autoritĂ© nouvelle. Ce geste est analogue au geste midrashique pratiquĂ© par les rabbins juifs, mais il occupe dans lâĂ©conomie de lâislam la position structurale que la Mishna occupe dans le judaĂŻsme rabbinique â non celle du midrash.
Pour le dire autrement : dans le judaĂŻsme, le midrash commente un verset de la Torah ; dans lâislam, câest le tafsÄ«r (le commentaire coranique) qui joue ce rĂŽle. Le hadith, lui, ne commente pas un verset : il Ă©nonce des normes, des rĂ©cits et des doctrines organisĂ©s par thĂšmes juridiques â exactement comme la Mishna organise le droit juif sans suivre lâordre des versets bibliques. Le hadith est mishnique, non midrashique.
Le tableau structural
| Fonction | JudaĂŻsme rabbinique | Islam |
|---|---|---|
| Organisation lemmatique (suit le verset) | Midrash (Mekhilta, Sifra, Rabba) | TafsÄ«r bi-l-maÊŸthĆ«r |
| Organisation thĂ©matique (suit les chapitres du droit) | Mishna, Tosefta | MuáčŁannaf (BukhÄrÄ«, Muslim, MÄlik) |
| Couche de commentaire | Guemara | Sharង (Ibn កajar, al-Nawawī) |
| Garant de la transmission | « Rabbi X a dit au nom de Rabbi Y » | IsnÄd (« untel nous a rapportĂ©, dâaprĂšs untel⊠») |
La consĂ©quence mĂ©thodologique est dĂ©cisive : le hadith nâa pas de lemme. LĂ oĂč le midrash sâancre sur un verset, le hadith sâancre sur une chaĂźne de transmetteurs. Câest cette substitution â le lemme remplacĂ© par la chaĂźne â qui constitue lâobjet propre de lâenquĂȘte.
Un corollaire important : lorsquâun hadith retrouve un ancrage scripturaire (lorsquâil harmonise un matĂ©riau reçu avec un verset coranique), nous avons affaire Ă un drash au sens fort, et non plus Ă une simple transmission mishnique. Les cas B, H, I et L prĂ©sentĂ©s ci-dessous sont de ce type â ce sont les plus probants du dossier.
La grille dâanalyse
Chaque cas est examinĂ© selon la mĂȘme grille, en six points :
- Le hadith â rĂ©fĂ©rences, texte, statut canonique.
- Le matĂ©riau antĂ©rieur â source identifiĂ©e, rĂ©fĂ©rence, degrĂ© de certitude de la filiation.
- Le type dâopĂ©ration â emprunt (diffusion dâun topos, aucun geste interprĂ©tatif), adaptation (islamisation du dĂ©cor, fonction inchangĂ©e), drash (ancrage scripturaire + opĂ©ration formelle + dĂ©placement de sens), ou emprunt de forme (le moule est reçu, le contenu est propre).
- Les marques formelles â amplification narrative, familles de variantes, jeu sur la racine, transformation numĂ©rique, harmonisation intertextuelle.
- Lâancrage substituĂ© â quel garant remplace quel garant.
- La fonction dans le présent de la rédaction.
Ătat de la recherche et point dâoriginalitĂ©
LâanciennetĂ© tardive du corpus des hadiths et sa fonction juridico-politique sont des acquis de lâorientalisme depuis la fin du XIXe siĂšcle. IgnĂĄc Goldziher (Muhammedanische Studien, 1890) a montrĂ© que de nombreux hadiths reflĂštent les dĂ©bats thĂ©ologiques et politiques des IIe et IIIe siĂšcles de lâhĂ©gire plutĂŽt que les paroles effectives du ProphĂšte. Joseph Schacht (Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence, 1950) a dĂ©montrĂ© la croissance rĂ©trograde des chaĂźnes de transmission : plus on remonte dans le temps, plus les chaĂźnes sâallongent et se systĂ©matisent, ce qui suggĂšre quâelles ont Ă©tĂ© fabriquĂ©es rĂ©trospectivement. G. H. A. Juynboll (Muslim Tradition, 1983) a affinĂ© la mĂ©thode du « common link » pour identifier les points de ramification des chaĂźnes. La datation proposĂ©e par Schacht a Ă©tĂ© contestĂ©e par Harald Motzki, qui estime que certaines traditions peuvent ĂȘtre plus anciennes que ce que Schacht admettait.
Ce paradigme est judiciaire : il parle dâauthenticitĂ© et de falsification. Goldziher lui-mĂȘme a notĂ© la parentĂ© entre hadith et haggada (le rĂ©cit homilĂ©tique juif) et recensĂ© des dits rabbiniques passĂ©s dans le recueil de BukhÄrÄ«. Mais il lâa fait dans un cadre de « lâinfluence juive » â câest-Ă -dire en termes dâemprunt de contenu, non en termes de genre littĂ©raire.
La comparaison structurale a Ă©tĂ© menĂ©e du cĂŽtĂ© du rĂ©cit : Uri Rubin (Between Bible and QurÊŸÄn, 1999), Shari Lowin (The Making of a Forefather, 2006) et Roberto Tottoli (sur les rĂ©cits des prophĂštes) ont comparĂ© les traditions narratives islamiques et juives. Mais ces travaux portent sur le corpus narratif exĂ©gĂ©tique, non sur le hadith canonique en tant que forme.
Le point dâoriginalitĂ© de la prĂ©sente enquĂȘte est le suivant : traiter le hadith non comme un contenu empruntĂ© ni comme un faux, mais comme un rĂ©gime dâautorisation â et poser la question de la migration du garant de vĂ©ritĂ© (du verset biblique Ă la chaĂźne de transmetteurs, puis Ă lâimam) comme objet propre.
3. Les cas : emprunts, adaptations et drash
Cas A â La mouche : un savoir mĂ©dical devenu parole prophĂ©tique
Le hadith. « Si une mouche tombe dans la boisson de lâun de vous, quâil lây plonge entiĂšrement puis lâen retire, car dans lâune de ses ailes il y a une maladie et dans lâautre une guĂ©rison. » RapportĂ© par BukhÄrÄ« (recueil du DĂ©but de la crĂ©ation), AbĆ« DÄwĆ«d et Ibn MÄja. Statut : pleinement canonique (áčŁaងīង) â câest ce qui en fait lâintĂ©rĂȘt.
Le matĂ©riau antĂ©rieur. Oded Zinger, dans un article publiĂ© en 2016 dans la revue Arabica, a proposĂ© la cantharide â la fameuse « mouche espagnole » de la littĂ©rature mĂ©dicale grĂ©co-romaine. Pline lâAncien dĂ©crit un insecte qui est Ă la fois un poison violent et un principe thĂ©rapeutique une fois composĂ©. Zinger Ă©carte explicitement une origine juive tardo-antique. La structure est celle du pharmakon : le remĂšde se tire du venin, comme dans la thĂ©riaque.
LâopĂ©ration. Adaptation, non drash. Aucun ancrage scripturaire, aucune opĂ©ration sur la lettre du texte. Un savoir mĂ©dical grec devient une parole prophĂ©tique par simple changement de garant : lâautoritĂ© du mĂ©decin est remplacĂ©e par la chaĂźne de transmission. Rien ne subsiste du garant dâorigine.
Les marques formelles. La symĂ©trie binaire (une aile porte la maladie, lâautre la guĂ©rison) est une mise en forme mnĂ©monique typique de la tradition orale, absente de la source mĂ©dicale grecque. Câest la signature dâun travail de mise en rĂ©cit, non dâune simple transcription.
La fonction. Fonder une compĂ©tence prophĂ©tique en matiĂšre de nature. Ce hadith est la cellule-souche du genre dit « mĂ©decine prophĂ©tique » (al-áčibb al-nabawÄ«), dĂ©veloppĂ© par des auteurs comme Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya ou al-DhahabÄ«, qui rĂ©tro-projettent systĂ©matiquement la mĂ©decine humorale galĂ©nique dans la bouche du ProphĂšte. Zinger montre en outre comment les savants mĂ©diĂ©vaux ont dĂ» dĂ©fendre ce hadith contre la science grĂ©co-islamique de leur temps : la couture entre le savoir empruntĂ© et le garant nouveau reste visible.
Verdict. Filiation plausible et documentĂ©e, mais opĂ©ration faible. Ce cas prouve le rĂ©agencement, non le drash. Il est le meilleur point dâentrĂ©e pĂ©dagogique pour comprendre la mĂ©thode, et le plus mauvais argument thĂ©orique pour dĂ©montrer la thĂšse. Ă utiliser comme tel.
Cas B â Les cinq clĂ©s de lâinvisible : un drash complet
Le hadith. « Les clĂ©s de lâinvisible sont cinq » : lâHeure derniĂšre ; la descente de la pluie ; ce qui est dans les matrices ; ce que chacun gagnera demain ; en quelle terre il mourra. RapportĂ© par BukhÄrÄ«.
Le matĂ©riau antĂ©rieur. Le Talmud de Babylone (traitĂ© TaÊżanit 2a) : Rabbi Yoáž„anan enseigne quâil est trois clĂ©s que Dieu nâa confiĂ©es Ă aucun envoyĂ© â la clĂ© de la pluie, la clĂ© de la parturiente et la clĂ© de la rĂ©surrection des morts.
LâopĂ©ration. Drash au sens fort. Trois opĂ©rations sont superposĂ©es :
- Ancrage : le hadith ne se contente pas de reprendre la liste rabbinique. Il la lit sur le verset Coran 31,34, qui Ă©numĂšre prĂ©cisĂ©ment cinq objets rĂ©servĂ©s Ă la science divine, et emprunte son intitulĂ© au verset Coran 6,59 : « Il dĂ©tient les clĂ©s de lâinvisible. » Le lemme coranique est bel et bien lĂ .
- Transformation numĂ©rique : la liste passe de trois Ă cinq, sous la contrainte du verset. Câest un procĂ©dĂ© midrashique classique : la liste reçue est rĂ©ajustĂ©e au chiffre du texte sacrĂ©.
- DĂ©placement de sens : chez Rabbi Yoáž„anan, les clĂ©s disent lâinaliĂ©nabilitĂ© dâun pouvoir â Dieu nâa dĂ©lĂ©guĂ© ces clĂ©s Ă personne. Dans le hadith, elles disent lâinaccessibilitĂ© dâun savoir â lâhomme ne peut pas connaĂźtre ces choses. On passe du registre du pouvoir Ă celui de la connaissance. Câest exactement le dĂ©placement thĂ©ologique attendu dans un contexte oĂč la question de la prescience prophĂ©tique est disputĂ©e.
Les marques formelles. La mĂ©taphore de la clĂ© est conservĂ©e. Deux des trois items rabbiniques sont retenus (la pluie ; la parturiente, devenue « ce qui est dans les matrices »). Le troisiĂšme (la rĂ©surrection) est abandonnĂ©, et deux items proprement coraniques sont ajoutĂ©s (le gain de demain, le lieu de la mort). Ce profil â noyau conservĂ©, pĂ©riphĂ©rie recomposĂ©e sous contrainte du verset â est la signature dâun travail exĂ©gĂ©tique, non dâun simple emprunt.
Lâancrage. Ici, lâancrage est restaurĂ© : la chaĂźne de transmetteurs sâadosse au verset coranique. Le hadith fonctionne comme un commentaire (tafsÄ«r) dĂ©guisĂ© en tradition (sunna).
La fonction. Clore par la voie de la tradition une question que le Coran laisse ouverte : jusquâoĂč va la science du ProphĂšte ? La rĂ©ponse est restrictive, et sert Ă limiter les prĂ©tentions Ă la prescience.
Verdict. Cas central du dossier. Si la filiation TaÊżanit vers hadith est confirmĂ©e, nous avons une dĂ©monstration complĂšte : lemme + matĂ©riau reçu + opĂ©ration formelle + dĂ©placement thĂ©ologique.
Cas C â Le gharqad : lâamplification narrative
Le hadith. Au jour du Jugement, les pierres et les arbres dĂ©noncent les Juifs cachĂ©s derriĂšre eux, sauf lâarbre gharqad, qui est lâarbre des Juifs. RapportĂ© par Muslim ; une version courte, antĂ©rieure, se trouve chez BukhÄrÄ«.
Le matĂ©riau antĂ©rieur. Fonds apocalyptique tardo-antique, probablement dâorigine syriaque.
LâopĂ©ration. Adaptation avec amplification narrative.
Les marques formelles. Câest ici que le dossier trouve sa preuve de croissance textuelle : la version courte chez BukhÄrÄ« est enrichie narrativement chez Muslim. Lâarbre gharqad apparaĂźt dans la version amplifiĂ©e. Lâincertitude botanique sur lâidentitĂ© de cet arbre et lâabsence de tout fondement coranique confirment quâil sâagit dâun ajout traditionnel. Le texte grossit entre deux collections canoniques : câest le comportement dâune tradition aggadique (rĂ©cit homilĂ©tique), non dâun procĂšs-verbal.
La fonction. Eschatologique. Ce hadith nâa jamais Ă©tĂ© traitĂ© comme une norme juridique par les commentateurs classiques â jusquâĂ sa citation littĂ©rale dans la Charte du Hamas (1988), qui opĂšre prĂ©cisĂ©ment la conversion illĂ©gitime dâun rĂ©cit aggadique en norme juridique (halakha).
Verdict. La valeur de ce cas est mĂ©thodologique : il fournit la marque formelle de lâamplification entre recensions, que lâon recherchera dans les autres cas.
Cas D â Les logia de JĂ©sus : lâannexion dâune autoritĂ© concurrente
Le corpus. Environ trois cents dits attribuĂ©s Ă JĂ©sus dans la littĂ©rature islamique de lâascĂšse (zuhd) et des belles-lettres (adab), recensĂ©s par Tarif Khalidi (The Muslim Jesus, 2001). Statut : marginal dans les recueils canoniques (áčŁaងīង), central dans la littĂ©rature ascĂ©tique et soufie.
Le matériau antérieur. Logia évangéliques réécrits ; apophtegmes des PÚres du désert ; sagesse monastique syriaque.
LâopĂ©ration. Adaptation dominante, avec des cas de drash ascĂ©tique : le dit Ă©vangĂ©lique est inflĂ©chi vers une doctrine du dĂ©tachement propre au zuhd.
Lâancrage. Cas remarquable : le garant reste JĂ©sus. Ce nâest donc pas une substitution, mais une annexion. Le corpus islamique sâapproprie une autoritĂ© concurrente sans lâeffacer. Câest une position intermĂ©diaire entre lâemprunt anonyme (cas A) et lâattribution prophĂ©tique.
La fonction. Doter lâascĂšse musulmane naissante dâune gĂ©nĂ©alogie, Ă un moment oĂč le monachisme chrĂ©tien reste le modĂšle disponible du renoncement.
Verdict. Le cas le plus riche quantitativement, le moins avancé analytiquement. Chantier à part entiÚre.
Cas E â « JâĂ©tais un trĂ©sor cachĂ© » : le drash revendiquĂ©
Le hadith. « JâĂ©tais un trĂ©sor cachĂ©, jâai aimĂ© ĂȘtre connu, jâai donc créé la crĂ©ation afin dâĂȘtre connu. » Ce hadith qudsÄ« (parole divine rapportĂ©e) est absent de toute collection canonique. Al-SakhÄwÄ« et al-ÊżAjlĆ«nÄ« notent quâil nâa pas de chaĂźne de transmission. Il est nĂ©anmoins universellement citĂ© par les soufis.
Le matĂ©riau antĂ©rieur. Fonds nĂ©oplatonicien et gnostique de lâĂ©manation : lâUn se diffuse par amour de la connaissance.
LâopĂ©ration. Drash pur, et revendiquĂ© comme tel. Ibn ÊżArabÄ« soutient que lâon peut authentifier des traditions par dĂ©voilement (kashf) plutĂŽt que par la chaĂźne de transmetteurs. Le critĂšre drashique entre en concurrence ouverte avec le critĂšre philologique.
Lâancrage. Ni lemme, ni chaĂźne : lâexpĂ©rience de lâhermĂ©neute. Câest une quatriĂšme position du garant.
La fonction. Fonder une cosmologie de lâamour et de la connaissance qui nâa pas dâappui coranique direct.
Verdict. Cas-limite qui rĂ©vĂšle la rĂšgle. Le systĂšme produit lui-mĂȘme des traditions dont chacun sait quâelles ne sont pas « authentiques » et qui sont pourtant tenues pour vraies. La catĂ©gorie dâauthenticitĂ© ne rend donc pas compte de ce que fait le corpus.
Cas F â Le mĂ©ta-indice : lâaveu interne du systĂšme
Ce nâest pas un cas, mais un fait de doctrine, et câest peut-ĂȘtre lâargument le plus fort du dossier.
La rĂšgle classique â attribuĂ©e Ă Aáž„mad b. កanbal et ÊżAbd al-Raáž„mÄn b. MahdÄ«, codifiĂ©e par Ibn កajar â veut quâun hadith faible (ážaÊżÄ«f) soit recevable pour lâexhortation morale (les mĂ©rites des actes, lâencouragement et la dissuasion), mais irrecevable en droit.
Autrement dit : la tradition dispose dâun seuil de vĂ©ridicitĂ© variable selon la fonction du texte. Le rĂ©gime strict sâapplique Ă la norme juridique (halakha), un rĂ©gime souple au rĂ©cit homilĂ©tique (aggada). Câest la reconnaissance explicite, par le systĂšme lui-mĂȘme, quâune part de son corpus ne fonctionne pas sur le mode de lâattestation historique.
Il faut ajouter la catĂ©gorie des isrÄÊŸÄ«liyyÄt : la tradition nomme et classe les matĂ©riaux juifs et chrĂ©tiens quâelle intĂšgre. Elle nâa jamais cru quâelle crĂ©ait ex nihilo.
Cas G â ÊżÄshĆ«rÄÊŸ : la tradition qui raconte son propre emprunt
Le hadith. « Lorsque le ProphĂšte arriva Ă MĂ©dine, il vit que les Juifs observaient le dixiĂšme jour de Muáž„arram et jeĂ»naient ce jour-lĂ . Il dit : Nous avons plus de droit que vous sur ce jour, et ordonna quâon y jeĂ»ne. » (BukhÄrÄ« 3942.)
Le matĂ©riau antĂ©rieur. Le jeĂ»ne du dix Tishri â Yom Kippour. Le LĂ©vitique 16,29 et 23,27 prescrit : « le dix du mois. »
LâopĂ©ration. Drash au sens fort, et sur le mode le plus rare : câest lâĂ©tymologie qui porte lâopĂ©ration. ÊżÄshĆ«rÄÊŸ est un mot dâaramĂ©en â le syriaque ÊżasorÄ signifie « dixiĂšme » â de la mĂȘme racine que lâhĂ©breu Êżasor. Le nom arabe conserve la date juive dans sa forme mĂȘme. Ce nâest pas un emprunt dissimulĂ© : le mot dit dâoĂč il vient.
Les marques formelles. Deux, également parlantes :
- Le retournement de la revendication : naáž„nu aáž„aqqu, « nous avons plus de droit ». La formule qui autorise lâemprunt est celle-lĂ mĂȘme qui le dĂ©lĂ©gitime comme emprunt. Câest un geste supersessionniste Ă lâĂ©tat chimiquement pur â et explicite.
- Le dĂ©crochage calendaire : le passage au calendrier lunaire pur dĂ©tache ÊżÄshĆ«rÄÊŸ de Tishri. Le jeĂ»ne devient surĂ©rogatoire aprĂšs la rupture avec les tribus juives de MĂ©dine. La tradition conserve la trace des deux moments : lâadoption et le desserrement.
Lâancrage. Aucun lemme coranique. Mais lâautoritĂ© invoquĂ©e nâest pas le ProphĂšte seul : câest MoĂŻse revendiquĂ©. Le garant nâest pas remplacĂ©, il est disputĂ©.
La fonction. Fonder une pratique en la rĂ©clamant Ă ses dĂ©tenteurs plutĂŽt quâen la niant.
Verdict. Le cas le plus parlant du dossier pour un public non spĂ©cialiste : la tradition met elle-mĂȘme en scĂšne lâappropriation â la date, la source, lâargument. Il nây a rien Ă dĂ©montrer, seulement Ă lire.
Cas H â Cinquante priĂšres ramenĂ©es Ă cinq : une norme en rĂ©cit
Le hadith. Au cours de lâascension nocturne (miÊżrÄj), cinquante priĂšres sont prescrites. MoĂŻse renvoie le ProphĂšte vers Dieu : « Retourne vers ton Seigneur, ta communautĂ© nâen sera pas capable. » Le nombre dĂ©croĂźt par paliers â cinquante, vingt-cinq, douze, six â jusquâĂ cinq. RĂ©ponse divine finale : « Ce sont cinq priĂšres, et elles en valent cinquante ; ma parole ne change pas. » (BukhÄrÄ«.)
Le matériau antérieur. Deux sources :
- Le MoĂŻse nĂ©gociateur de lâaggada rabbinique, qui discute avec Dieu et le fait revenir sur sa dĂ©cision. Dans le Talmud (Berakhot 32a), MoĂŻse « saisit le Saint, bĂ©ni soit-Il, par son vĂȘtement » et refuse de lĂącher.
- Le topos de la rétribution décuplée, ancré ici sur le verset Coran 6,160 : « quiconque vient avec une bonne action en aura dix pareilles. »
LâopĂ©ration. Drash au sens fort. Le rĂ©cit rĂ©sout une contradiction juridique : comment une obligation peut-elle ĂȘtre Ă la fois fixĂ©e par Dieu et modifiĂ©e ? RĂ©ponse : elle ne lâest pas. Cinq fois dix Ă©gale cinquante. La parole ne change pas. LâarithmĂ©tique sauve lâimmutabilitĂ© divine.
Les marques formelles. Transformation numĂ©rique sous contrainte dâun verset â mĂȘme signature quâau cas B. Et un personnage-fonction empruntĂ© : MoĂŻse est celui qui sait par expĂ©rience quâune communautĂ© ne tient pas ses obligations. Lâallusion au poids de la Loi mosaĂŻque est transparente.
Lâancrage. RestaurĂ© : le verset 6,160 tient le calcul.
La fonction. Ătiologie du nombre cinq â que le Coran ne prescrit nulle part. Câest lâexemple canonique dâune norme sans lemme, dotĂ©e aprĂšs coup dâun rĂ©cit fondateur : exactement ce que lâaggada fait pour la halakha.
Verdict. DeuxiÚme piÚce forte du dossier, et la plus démonstrative quant à la fonction : ici le récit ne décore pas la norme, il la fabrique.
Cas I â « Dieu crĂ©a Adam Ă son image » : un lemme biblique greffĂ© sur le lexique coranique
Le hadith. « Dieu crĂ©a Adam Ă son image (áčŁĆ«ra), sa taille Ă©tant de soixante coudĂ©es. » (BukhÄrÄ« 6227.)
Le matĂ©riau antĂ©rieur. GenĂšse 1,26-27 : « Ă notre image, selon notre ressemblance. » Le passage par la racine arabe áčą-W-R est dĂ©cisif : lâarabe áčŁĆ«ra rĂ©pond Ă lâhĂ©breu tsurah (forme), et le Coran connaĂźt parfaitement cette racine â « il vous a formĂ©s et a rendu belles vos formes » (Coran 64,3) â ainsi que le nom divin al-MuáčŁawwir, « le Formateur ». Le hadith branche le verset de la GenĂšse sur le lexique coranique de la formation.
LâopĂ©ration. Drash au sens fort, avec une consĂ©quence thĂ©ologique lourde : le Coran affirme la non-ressemblance divine (« rien ne Lui ressemble », Coran 42,11). Le hadith introduit dans le corpus une proposition que le Coran exclut.
Les marques formelles. Exceptionnelle : la variante trahit le travail. Deux recensions du mĂȘme hadith, chez le mĂȘme compilateur BukhÄrÄ« :
| Référence | Texte | Clause « à son image » |
|---|---|---|
| BukhÄrÄ« 6227 | « Ă son image (áčŁĆ«ratihi), sa taille Ă©tant de soixante coudĂ©es » | prĂ©sente |
| BukhÄrÄ« 3326 | « sa taille Ă©tant de soixante coudĂ©es » | absente |
Le mĂȘme Ă©noncĂ©, transmis par le mĂȘme compagnon (AbĆ« Hurayra), circule avec et sans la proposition thĂ©ologiquement dangereuse. Câest la meilleure preuve matĂ©rielle du dossier quâune clause sâajoute ou se retire selon les besoins. Les siĂšcles de commentaire sur lâantĂ©cĂ©dent du pronom â « son » image : celle de Dieu ? celle dâAdam ? â sont la trace fossile de cet embarras.
Lâancrage. Lemme biblique, garant prophĂ©tique, lexique coranique : les trois plans sont superposĂ©s dans une seule phrase.
Verdict. Meilleur cas du dossier aprÚs B. Il réunit un lemme identifiable, une racine sémitique partagée, une opération lexicale, un déplacement théologique et une preuve matérielle par variantes.
Cas J â Adam de soixante coudĂ©es : le gĂ©ant primordial
Le hadith. « Adam mesure soixante coudĂ©es ; les hommes nâont pas cessĂ© de dĂ©croĂźtre en taille depuis. » (BukhÄrÄ« 3326 et 6227.)
Le matĂ©riau antĂ©rieur. Traditions rabbiniques sur la stature cosmique dâAdam, rĂ©duite aprĂšs la faute. Le Talmud (កagiga 12a) : « Adam sâĂ©tendait de la terre au firmament ; Dieu posa la main sur lui et le diminua. » Bereshit Rabba 8 et 12 ; Talmud Sanhedrin 38b.
LâopĂ©ration. Adaptation, avec fixation numĂ©rique. Lâaggada donne un gĂ©ant sans chiffre stable ; le hadith fixe soixante coudĂ©es â nombre sexagĂ©simal, dâascendance mĂ©sopotamienne.
Les marques formelles. Le motif conservĂ© nâest pas la taille mais la dĂ©croissance continue â câest le trait le plus spĂ©cifique de la source, et câest lui qui passe.
La fonction. Inscrire lâhumanitĂ© dans une dĂ©gradation depuis lâorigine. Câest aussi lâargument implicite de toute autoritĂ© fondĂ©e sur lâanciennetĂ© : les Compagnons valent mieux que les Suivants, et ainsi de suite.
Verdict. Cas de renfort, dont la valeur tient Ă sa solidaritĂ© avec le cas I : câest le mĂȘme hadith. Un seul Ă©noncĂ© porte Ă la fois un emprunt aggadique (la taille) et un drash lemmatique (lâimage). La composition est stratifiĂ©e.
Cas K â Soixante-treize sectes : lâarithmĂ©tique de la surenchĂšre
Le hadith. « Les Juifs se sont divisĂ©s en soixante et onze sectes, les chrĂ©tiens en soixante-douze, et ma communautĂ© se divisera en soixante-treize â toutes en enfer sauf une. » (TirmidhÄ«, Ibn MÄja, AbĆ« DÄwĆ«d.) AuthenticitĂ© contestĂ©e Ă lâintĂ©rieur mĂȘme de la tradition : Ibn កazm le rejette ; Ibn al-WazÄ«r relĂšve son absence des deux recueils canoniques majeurs.
Le matĂ©riau antĂ©rieur. Le topos des soixante-dix : soixante-dix nations de GenĂšse 10 (soixante-douze dans la Septante), soixante-dix anciens, soixante-dix langues, soixante-douze traducteurs. Dans tout lâespace sĂ©mitique, 70 ou 72 est le chiffre de la totalitĂ© des peuples.
LâopĂ©ration. Drash sur le mode de la surenchĂšre ordinale : 71, puis 72, puis 73. Chaque tradition reçoit un cran de plus. La plus rĂ©cente est la plus divisĂ©e â ce qui, dans une logique de dĂ©cadence, est un aveu autant quâune revendication.
Les marques formelles. La sĂ©rie nâa de sens que relationnelle : aucun des trois chiffres ne signifie rien isolĂ©ment, câest lâĂ©cart de un qui porte tout. Signature dâune construction, non dâun constat.
Note : la filiation au topos des soixante-dix nations est une proposition de lecture, non un rĂ©sultat Ă©tabli par la recherche. Elle doit ĂȘtre instruite avant tout usage public.
La fonction. Produire de lâorthodoxie par soustraction â dĂ©finir la communautĂ© sauvĂ©e comme reste (al-firqa al-nÄjiya, « le groupe sauvĂ© »).
Verdict. Haut rendement polĂ©mique â câest la matrice de tous les exclusivismes ultĂ©rieurs â et faible sĂ©curitĂ© philologique. Ă manier avec rĂ©serve.
Cas L â Le calame : lâinstrument prĂ©existant
Le hadith. « La premiĂšre chose que Dieu crĂ©a fut le calame. Il lui dit : Ăcris. Il dit : Seigneur, quâĂ©crirai-je ? Il dit : Ăcris le dĂ©cret de toute chose jusquâĂ ce que lâHeure advienne. » (TirmidhÄ«.)
Le matériau antérieur. Deux nappes distinctes :
- Bereshit Rabba 1,1 : la Torah prĂ©existante dĂ©clare « jâĂ©tais lâinstrument dâouvrage du Saint, bĂ©ni soit-Il » ; Dieu regarde dans la Torah et crĂ©e le monde. Le monde est créé par un Ă©crit qui le prĂ©cĂšde.
- Les tables cĂ©lestes de la littĂ©rature Ă©nochique et du livre des JubilĂ©s, oĂč tout le dĂ©cret est inscrit dâavance.
LâopĂ©ration. Drash au sens fort. Le hadith dispose de deux lemmes coraniques : « par le calame et ce quâils inscrivent » (Coran 68,1) et « la table gardĂ©e » (Coran 85,22). Le Coran donne le calame et la table ; le hadith leur donne une chronologie â le calame dâabord â et une fonction cosmologique que le Coran ne formule pas.
Les marques formelles. Substitution dâinstrument : lĂ oĂč lâaggada met la Torah comme plan de lâĆuvre, le hadith met lâoutil dâĂ©criture. DĂ©placement remarquable : on passe du texte Ă lâinstrument, ce qui est cohĂ©rent avec une thĂ©ologie oĂč le texte incréé est le Coran lui-mĂȘme et ne saurait ĂȘtre doublĂ©.
Lâancrage. RestaurĂ©, et double (Coran 68,1 ; 85,22).
La fonction. Fonder le qadar (le dĂ©cret divin) : le dĂ©cret est Ă©crit avant le monde. Câest la piĂšce cosmologique du dĂ©bat sur la prĂ©destination aux IIe et IIIe siĂšcles de lâhĂ©gire.
Verdict. Cas fort, et le plus intĂ©ressant thĂ©ologiquement : il montre une contrainte de systĂšme Ă lâĆuvre. Le matĂ©riau reçu est adoptĂ©, mais lâĂ©lĂ©ment qui entrerait en concurrence avec le Coran incréé (le livre prĂ©existant) est remplacĂ© par un Ă©lĂ©ment compatible (lâoutil). Le drash nâest pas seulement transformation : câest transformation sous contrainte doctrinale.
Cas M â Le Dieu du dernier tiers de la nuit
Le hadith. « Notre Seigneur descend chaque nuit au ciel le plus proche, lorsquâil reste le dernier tiers de la nuit, et dit : Qui Mâinvoque, que Je lui rĂ©ponde ? Qui Me demande, que Je lui donne ? Qui implore Mon pardon, que Je lui pardonne ? » (BukhÄrÄ«, Muslim.)
Le matĂ©riau antĂ©rieur. Le Talmud (Berakhot 3a) : la nuit est divisĂ©e en trois veilles ; Ă chacune, Dieu siĂšge et rugit comme un lion, disant : « Malheur aux fils, pour les pĂ©chĂ©s desquels jâai dĂ©truit ma maison⊠» Suit (3b) le motif de la harpe de David sâĂ©veillant Ă minuit et de la veille de fin de nuit comme temps privilĂ©giĂ© de la priĂšre.
LâopĂ©ration. Drash, sans lemme coranique. Trois Ă©lĂ©ments passent ensemble et ne se rencontrent nulle part ailleurs sous cette forme : le dĂ©coupage tripartite de la nuit, la derniĂšre veille comme moment privilĂ©giĂ©, et un Dieu qui parle Ă voix haute dans la nuit.
Les marques formelles. Lâinversion du contenu du discours nocturne est la signature : chez les rabbins, Dieu se lamente sur la destruction du Temple ; dans le hadith, il offre â rĂ©ponse, don, pardon. Le cadre est conservĂ© intĂ©gralement, le contenu est retournĂ© du deuil vers la grĂące. Câest exactement le type de transformation quâon attend dâune tradition qui hĂ©rite dâune structure liturgique sans hĂ©riter du deuil qui la motivait.
La fonction. Fonder la priÚre surérogatoire de nuit (tahajjud) en lui donnant un répondant divin.
Verdict. Cas majeur, et le plus lourd de consĂ©quences. Ce hadith est lâun des principaux champs de bataille de la thĂ©ologie islamique : la question de la descente divine (nuzĆ«l) a occupĂ© mutazilites, ashâarites et hanbalites pendant des siĂšcles, et occupe encore les salafis contemporains. Or la structure vient dâune veille liturgique juive. Lâanthropomorphisme qui a coĂ»tĂ© tant dâencre nâest pas une donnĂ©e de la rĂ©vĂ©lation : câest un hĂ©ritage de forme.
Cas N â « Les actes ne valent que par les intentions »
Le hadith. « Les actes ne valent que par les intentions, et chacun nâa que ce quâil a eu lâintention de faire. » Ce hadith est le premier du recueil de BukhÄrÄ«, placĂ© lĂ dĂ©libĂ©rĂ©ment â comme une thĂšse sur le droit en exergue du livre.
Le matĂ©riau antĂ©rieur. La doctrine rabbinique de la kavvanah (lâintention dirigĂ©e) : la Mishna (Menaáž„ot 13,11) â « quâil offre beaucoup ou quâil offre peu, pourvu quâil dirige son cĆur vers le Ciel » ; le Talmud (Sanhedrin 106b) â « le MisĂ©ricordieux rĂ©clame le cĆur ».
LâopĂ©ration. IndĂ©cidable â et câest lâintĂ©rĂȘt du cas. Trois lectures sont possibles : convergence indĂ©pendante (le principe est trop gĂ©nĂ©ral pour prouver une filiation) ; koinĂš Ă©thique tardo-antique (un principe partagĂ© par tout le Proche-Orient) ; drash. La deuxiĂšme est lâhypothĂšse la plus probable.
La fonction. Poser le principe qui commande tout le droit rituel : lâacte sans intention est nul.
Verdict. Cas Ă valeur de garde-fou. Il ressemble Ă un emprunt et nâen est peut-ĂȘtre pas un. Il est maintenu dans le dossier prĂ©cisĂ©ment pour cela : un dossier qui ne contiendrait que des cas concluants serait suspect. Câest ici que la distinction entre emprunt, koinĂš et drash doit ĂȘtre dĂ©fendue en acte.
Cas O â Le hadith de Gabriel : lâemprunt du moule
Le hadith. Un inconnu sâassied devant le ProphĂšte et lâinterroge successivement : quâest-ce que lâislÄm ? quâest-ce que lâÄ«mÄn (la foi) ? quâest-ce que lâiáž„sÄn (lâexcellence) ? quand viendra lâHeure ? Ă chaque rĂ©ponse, lâinconnu approuve â « tu as dit vrai ». Il sâen va ; le ProphĂšte dit : « CâĂ©tait Gabriel, venu vous enseigner votre religion. » (BukhÄrÄ«, Muslim.)
Le matĂ©riau antĂ©rieur. Non pas un contenu, mais un genre : les erotapokriseis, la littĂ©rature chrĂ©tienne tardo-antique de questions et rĂ©ponses, forme catĂ©chĂ©tique par excellence. Plus largement, le dialogue didactique oĂč le questionneur connaĂźt dĂ©jĂ la rĂ©ponse et interroge pour instruire lâauditoire.
LâopĂ©ration. Emprunt de forme. Rien du contenu nâest Ă©tranger Ă lâislam ; tout de lâarchitecture lâest. Câest une catĂ©gorie que la grille initiale ne prĂ©voyait pas.
Les marques formelles. Trois traits du genre catĂ©chĂ©tique sont rĂ©unis : le questionneur qui valide les rĂ©ponses, donc qui les connaĂźt ; la progression graduĂ©e du visible Ă lâintĂ©rieur (pratique, puis foi, puis excellence) ; et la rĂ©vĂ©lation finale de lâidentitĂ© du maĂźtre, qui transforme rĂ©troactivement le dialogue en enseignement autorisĂ©.
La fonction. Produire un catĂ©chisme : ce hadith est, aujourdâhui encore, la dĂ©finition standard de la religion en trois degrĂ©s.
Verdict. Cas dĂ©cisif pour la typologie. Il oblige Ă ajouter une catĂ©gorie : ce qui se transmet nâest pas seulement du matĂ©riau, câest aussi un format. Et un format transmis est plus difficile Ă repĂ©rer quâun contenu â donc vraisemblablement plus frĂ©quent quâon ne le voit.
Cas P â La circoncision : une institution sans support coranique
Le corpus. Deux traditions solidaires :
- « La fiáčra (la disposition native) est cinq â la circoncision, le rasage du pubis, la taille de la moustache, la coupe des ongles, lâĂ©pilation des aisselles. » (BukhÄrÄ«.)
- « Abraham se circoncit passĂ© quatre-vingts ans, et il se circoncit Ă lâherminette (qadĆ«m). » (BukhÄrÄ«.)
Le fait dĂ©cisif. La circoncision est absente du Coran. Pas une occurrence, pas une allusion. Lâinstitution la plus identitaire de la pratique musulmane repose entiĂšrement sur le hadith.
Le matĂ©riau antĂ©rieur. GenĂšse 17 : lâalliance abrahamique. Le hadith ne conteste pas lâorigine : il la revendique, comme au cas G, en passant par Abraham plutĂŽt que par MoĂŻse.
Les marques formelles. Deux anomalies, lâune et lâautre parlantes :
- LâĂąge. La GenĂšse 17,24 dit quâAbraham est circoncis Ă quatre-vingt-dix-neuf ans. Le hadith dit quatre-vingts. LâĂ©cart nâest pas une approximation : câest un chiffre diffĂ©rent, dans une tradition oĂč les Ăąges des patriarches sont des donnĂ©es scripturaires. Que fait ce quatre-vingts ? Question ouverte.
- Le qadĆ«m. Les commentateurs classiques hĂ©sitent : qadĆ«m est-il lâoutil (une herminette, ce qui est un dĂ©tail de rĂ©alisme brutal) ou un toponyme (un lieu en Syrie) ? LâĂ©quivoque est portĂ©e par la vocalisation. Câest exactement le type de nĆud philologique que le drash exploite plutĂŽt quâil ne le rĂ©sout.
Un troisiĂšme trait : lâinscription dans une liste de cinq, qui absorbe une alliance dans une hygiĂšne. Le passage du signe de lâalliance Ă lâitem de fiáčra est un dĂ©placement thĂ©ologique majeur, opĂ©rĂ© par simple mise en liste.
La fonction. Fonder une pratique constitutive sans support scripturaire â et la naturaliser (fiáčra : la disposition native) plutĂŽt que la contractualiser (berit : lâalliance).
Verdict. Le cas le plus dĂ©monstratif du dossier entier, et le plus difficile Ă contester : nul besoin dâĂ©tablir une filiation textuelle fine, il suffit de constater une absence. Si le hadith Ă©tait un ornement de la rĂ©vĂ©lation, retirer le hadith laisserait lâislam intact. Or retirer le hadith fait disparaĂźtre la circoncision, le nombre de cinq priĂšres (cas H), ÊżÄshĆ«rÄÊŸ (cas G) et la priĂšre de nuit (cas M). Le corpus nâest pas un supplĂ©ment : il est porteur.
4. Note de contrĂŽle : le Coran pratique le mĂȘme geste
Le Coran lui-mĂȘme pratique ouvertement le rĂ©agencement de matĂ©riaux antĂ©rieurs, ce qui interdit de le tenir pour une invention du hadith. Le verset Coran 5,32 â « câest pourquoi nous avons prescrit aux Fils dâIsraĂ«l que quiconque tue une Ăąme⊠câest comme sâil avait tuĂ© lâhumanitĂ© entiĂšre » â cite la Mishna Sanhedrin 4,5 en la donnant explicitement pour une prescription antĂ©rieure adressĂ©e Ă IsraĂ«l.
Deux conséquences, malgré la restriction du corpus au hadith :
- Le hadith nâinvente pas le rĂ©agencement ; il en change le rĂ©gime dâaveu. Le Coran cite en nommant sa source ; le hadith cite en substituant son garant. Câest prĂ©cisĂ©ment la diffĂ©rence entre le lemme et la chaĂźne.
- Toute critique qui reprocherait au hadith dâemprunter viserait aussi le Coran. Lâargument nâest donc pas « le hadith emprunte », mais « le hadith dĂ©signe autrement ce quâil emprunte ».
5. SynthĂšse
Tableau récapitulatif
| Cas | Matériau antérieur | Opération | Ancrage | Force probante |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A â la mouche | mĂ©decine grecque (Pline, cantharide) | adaptation | chaĂźne seule | faible (pĂ©dagogique) |
| B â les cinq clĂ©s | Talmud, TaÊżanit 2a | drash | lemme restaurĂ© (Coran 31,34 ; 6,59) | forte |
| C â le gharqad | apocalyptique tardo-antique | adaptation + amplification | chaĂźne seule | mĂ©thodologique |
| D â logia de JĂ©sus | Ă©vangiles, PĂšres du dĂ©sert | adaptation / annexion | garant conservĂ© | Ă instruire |
| E â trĂ©sor cachĂ© | nĂ©oplatonisme | drash revendiquĂ© | kashf (dĂ©voilement) | rĂ©vĂ©latrice |
| F â hadith faible / mĂ©rites | â | â | â | aveu interne du systĂšme |
| G â ÊżÄshĆ«rÄÊŸ | Yom Kippour (LĂ©vitique 16,29 ; 23,27) | drash Ă©tymologique | garant disputĂ© (MoĂŻse) | forte (la plus lisible) |
| H â 50 vers 5 priĂšres | MoĂŻse nĂ©gociateur (Berakhot 32a) | drash | lemme restaurĂ© (Coran 6,160) | forte (fonction Ă©tiologique) |
| I â « Ă son image » | GenĂšse 1,26-27 | drash lexical | lemme biblique + lexique coranique | trĂšs forte (preuve par variantes) |
| J â soixante coudĂ©es | Talmud កagiga 12a ; Bereshit Rabba | adaptation | chaĂźne seule | renfort (stratification) |
| K â 73 sectes | topos des soixante-dix nations | drash (surenchĂšre) | chaĂźne faible | Ă instruire (rĂ©serve) |
| L â le calame | Bereshit Rabba 1,1 ; tables cĂ©lestes | drash sous contrainte | double lemme (Coran 68,1 ; 85,22) | forte |
| M â le nuzĆ«l | Talmud Berakhot 3a | drash (cadre gardĂ©, contenu retournĂ©) | chaĂźne seule | trĂšs forte (enjeu thĂ©ologique) |
| N â la niyya | Mishna Menaáž„ot 13,11 ; Talmud Sanhedrin 106b | emprunt ? koinĂš ? | chaĂźne seule | garde-fou (indĂ©cidable) |
| O â hadith de Gabriel | erotapokriseis (genre) | emprunt de forme | chaĂźne + garant angĂ©lique | typologique |
| P â la circoncision | GenĂšse 17 | institution sans lemme | garant revendiquĂ© (Abraham) | dĂ©cisive |
Ce que le dossier établit
Le corpus se comporte comme une littĂ©rature traditionnaire Ă seuils de vĂ©ridicitĂ© variables, qui rĂ©agence des matĂ©riaux antiques sous un garant substituĂ©. La position structurale est mishnique ; lâopĂ©ration est, selon les cas, de lâemprunt, de lâadaptation ou du drash vĂ©ritable.
Six rĂ©sultats apparus en cours dâinstruction
1. La stratification (cas I + J). Un seul hadith â Adam Ă son image, haut de soixante coudĂ©es â porte simultanĂ©ment un emprunt aggadique et un drash lemmatique. LâunitĂ© dâanalyse nâest donc pas le hadith mais lâĂ©noncĂ© : une mĂȘme tradition peut ĂȘtre composite, chaque clause ayant sa propre histoire. Cela oblige Ă dĂ©couper plus fin que la grille initiale ne le prĂ©voyait.
2. Le garant disputĂ© (cas G). ÊżÄshĆ«rÄÊŸ ajoute une cinquiĂšme position Ă la typologie des ancrages : ni lemme, ni chaĂźne, ni kashf, ni imam â mais revendication dâun garant concurrent (« nous avons plus de droit sur MoĂŻse que vous »). LâautoritĂ© nâest pas substituĂ©e, elle est disputĂ©e Ă son dĂ©tenteur.
3. Le rĂ©gime dâaveu. Ce qui distingue le hadith du Coran nâest pas quâil emprunte, mais quâil nomme autrement sa source. La note thĂ©orique doit porter sur les rĂ©gimes de dĂ©signation de lâorigine, non sur lâorigine elle-mĂȘme.
4. Lâemprunt de forme (cas O). Ce qui se transmet nâest pas seulement du matĂ©riau : câest aussi un format â ici la catĂ©chĂšse par questions et rĂ©ponses. Un format transmis est plus difficile Ă repĂ©rer quâun contenu, donc vraisemblablement plus frĂ©quent quâon ne le voit. La grille doit gagner une quatriĂšme catĂ©gorie, Ă cĂŽtĂ© dâemprunt, adaptation et drash.
5. La transformation sous contrainte doctrinale (cas L). Le matĂ©riau reçu nâest pas librement remaniĂ© : lâĂ©lĂ©ment qui entrerait en concurrence avec un dogme constituĂ© est remplacĂ© par un Ă©quivalent compatible. Le livre prĂ©existant devient lâoutil prĂ©existant, parce que la place du livre incréé est dĂ©jĂ tenue par le Coran. Le drash travaille sous pression de systĂšme.
6. Le corpus est porteur, non ornemental (cas P). Retirer le hadith fait disparaĂźtre la circoncision, le nombre de cinq priĂšres, ÊżÄshĆ«rÄÊŸ et la priĂšre de nuit. Ce nâest pas un supplĂ©ment Ă la rĂ©vĂ©lation, câest une part de la structure. La question « le hadith est-il authentique ? » est donc mal posĂ©e : une rĂ©ponse nĂ©gative ne laisserait rien debout, ce qui est prĂ©cisĂ©ment lâindice quâon nâa pas affaire Ă un genre documentaire.
Ce que le dossier nâĂ©tablit pas
Que tout hadith soit un midrash. La distinction des trois degrés (emprunt, adaptation, drash) doit rester opérante, sous peine de pan-midrashisme : si toute réutilisation est drash, le concept ne discrimine plus rien.
6. Vers une théorie : le déplacement du garant de vérité
LâenquĂȘte suggĂšre une histoire unique, traversĂ©e par un mĂȘme problĂšme : comment autoriser une parole nouvelle dans un monde oĂč seul lâancien fait autoritĂ© ? Cinq solutions ont Ă©tĂ© identifiĂ©es, qui forment autant de positions du garant de vĂ©ritĂ© :
- Le verset (solution midrashique : le nouveau se lĂ©gitime par le commentaire de lâancien).
- La chaĂźne de transmetteurs (solution mishnique : le nouveau se lĂ©gitime par la remontĂ©e jusquâĂ lâorigine).
- Le garant disputĂ© (solution supersessionniste : le nouveau se lĂ©gitime en rĂ©clamant le garant du concurrent â « nous avons plus de droit sur MoĂŻse que vous »).
- LâexpĂ©rience de lâhermĂ©neute (solution soufie : le nouveau se lĂ©gitime par le dĂ©voilement, kashf).
- La personne vivante (solution chiite : lâimam est le garant vivant de la parole continue â cf. Amir-Moezzi, Le Coran silencieux et le Coran parlant).
Le dĂ©doublement islamique du geste est clair : le tafsÄ«r garde le lemme, le hadith garde la chaĂźne. Le hadith est mishnique ; le tafsÄ«r est midrashique. Les cas oĂč un hadith retrouve son lemme (cas B, H, I, L) sont les points de contact entre les deux rĂ©gimes, et sont les plus instructifs.
La vĂ©ridicitĂ© graduĂ©e est un trait de genre. La tradition distingue le hadith strict (recevable en droit) du hadith faible (recevable en exhortation morale). Elle nomme les isrÄÊŸÄ«liyyÄt. Elle accepte des hadiths sans chaĂźne tenus pour vrais. Le corpus nâa jamais fonctionnĂ© sur une thĂ©orie binaire du vrai et du faux. Ce sont les lectures modernes â apologĂ©tique et polĂ©mique â qui la lui imposent.
La consĂ©quence critique est directe : le littĂ©ralisme contemporain, en traitant tout hadith canonique comme norme juridique, commet une erreur de genre. Il lit de lâaggada comme de la halakha. Le hadith du gharqad dans la Charte du Hamas en est la dĂ©monstration la plus visible.
7. Conclusion
Cette enquĂȘte propose un changement de regard sur le hadith. Non plus : est-ce authentique ? â question qui suppose que le corpus est une archive et qui ne sait pas quoi faire de la rĂ©ponse, quelle quâelle soit. Mais : que fait le corpus ? Comment fabrique-t-il de lâautoritĂ© ? Que rĂ©agence-t-il, et sous quelles contraintes ?
La rĂ©ponse est que le hadith occupe dans lâislam la position que la Mishna occupe dans le judaĂŻsme : il organise le droit et le rĂ©cit non pas en suivant lâordre des versets, mais en suivant lâordre des chapitres de la vie. Il nâa pas de lemme : il a une chaĂźne. Et lorsque, exceptionnellement, il retrouve un lemme â lorsque lâaggada se fait drash â câest lĂ que le mĂ©canisme se rĂ©vĂšle le plus clairement.
Ce que cette enquĂȘte ouvre, au-delĂ du hadith, câest une thĂ©orie gĂ©nĂ©rale de la migration du garant de vĂ©ritĂ© dans les traditions religieuses. Le verset, la chaĂźne, le garant disputĂ©, le dĂ©voilement, la personne vivante : cinq rĂ©ponses au mĂȘme problĂšme, cinq maniĂšres de dire quâune parole nouvelle a le droit dâĂȘtre dite. Lâhistoire des religions est peut-ĂȘtre, pour une part, lâhistoire de ces substitutions.
8. RepĂšres bibliographiques
- IgnĂĄc Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, II, Halle, 1890.
- Joseph Schacht, The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence, Oxford, 1950.
- G. H. A. Juynboll, Muslim Tradition. Studies in Chronology, Provenance and Authorship of Early កadīth, Cambridge, 1983.
- Uri Rubin, Between Bible and QurÊŸÄn. The Children of Israel and the Islamic Self-Image, Princeton, 1999.
- Shari L. Lowin, The Making of a Forefather. Abraham in Islamic and Jewish Exegetical Narratives, Leyde, 2006.
- Tarif Khalidi, The Muslim Jesus. Sayings and Stories in Islamic Literature, Cambridge (Mass.), Harvard University Press, 2001.
- Oded Zinger, « Tradition and Medicine on the Wings of a Fly », Arabica 63/1-2, 2016, p. 89-117.
- Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi, Le Coran silencieux et le Coran parlant. Sources scripturaires de lâislam entre histoire et ferveur, Paris, CNRS Ăditions, 2011.
- M. J. Kister, « âŠAnd he was born circumcised⊠: Some notes on circumcision in កadÄ«th », Oriens 34, 1994, p. 10-30.
- Roberto Tottoli, Biblical Prophets in the QurÊŸÄn and Muslim Literature, Richmond, 2002 (sur les qiáčŁaáčŁ al-anbiyÄÊŸ, rĂ©cits des prophĂštes).
Note : transcriptions simplifiĂ©es de lâhĂ©breu, de lâaramĂ©en et de lâarabe.
9. Pistes ouvertes
Les rĂ©sultats de cette enquĂȘte appellent plusieurs questions de recherche, que les volets suivants du dossier auront Ă instruire :
- Si la structure dâun des plus grands dĂ©bats thĂ©ologiques de lâislam (la descente divine, cas M) est un hĂ©ritage liturgique juif, que devient le dĂ©bat lorsquâon le resitue dans son contexte de formation inter-religieuse ? Faut-il réécrire lâhistoire de la thĂ©ologie islamique en tenant compte de lâarchĂ©ologie de ses formes ?
- Si le hadith est porteur et non ornemental (cas P), quelle thĂ©orie de lâautoritĂ© religieuse rend compte dâun systĂšme oĂč la norme pratique repose sur un corpus dont on sait quâil rĂ©agence des matĂ©riaux Ă©trangers ? La thĂ©orie de lâautoritĂ© doit-elle distinguer lâorigine de la fonction ?
- Si lâunitĂ© dâanalyse est lâĂ©noncĂ© et non le hadith (cas I + J), quelles mĂ©thodes de la philologie matĂ©rielle (collation des variantes, stemmatique) peuvent ĂȘtre appliquĂ©es au corpus hadithique pour cartographier la stratification interne des traditions ?
- Si le drash travaille sous contrainte doctrinale (cas L), faut-il introduire en histoire des religions un modĂšle de la « transformation sous contrainte » qui rendrait compte de la sĂ©lection des Ă©lĂ©ments transmis en fonction de la structure dâaccueil ?