Philosophy & History Philosophie & Histoire Dossier · Part 3 of 3 Dossier · Volet 3 sur 3 ⏱ 13 min read 13 min de lecture January 2026 janvier 2026

The Charter of Medina: the plural pact La Charte de Médine : le pacte pluriel

The Charter of Medina: From Pluralistic Alliance to Imperial Orthodoxy La Charte de Médine : de l'alliance plurielle à l'orthodoxie impériale

Medina in 622 was a largely Jewish city; the Charter founded a plural umma there. How that political pact closed into imperial orthodoxy under the Umayyads. Médine en 622 est une cité largement juive ; la Charte y fonde une umma plurielle. Comment ce pacte politique s'est refermé en orthodoxie impériale sous les Omeyyades.

1. The Charter of Medina: an explicitly pluralistic umma

Medina: a predominantly Jewish city before the pact

Any historically rigorous reading of the Medina Charter must start from a fact that is often downplayed in subsequent reconstructions: at the beginning of the 7th century, Yathrib/Medina was not a predominantly Muslim city. Of the five major tribal groups that structured the city and its immediate territory, three were established Jewish tribes (BanĆ« QaynuqÄÊż, BanĆ« Naឍīr, BanĆ« Qurayáș“a), with their own economic networks, alliances, laws, and political memory.

The Arab clans—Aws and Khazraj—were themselves divided by various religious affiliations and did not constitute a homogeneous confessional bloc. Muhammad’s preaching therefore took place in an already pluralistic space, where Judaism was neither marginal nor external, but structural.

This point is decisive: the Charter does not integrate minorities into a pre-existing Muslim community; it organizes a common space in which Jews are central actors.

Status of the document: a covenant, not a religious text

The Charter of Medina belongs to the Semitic genre of covenant and is not a religious founding document. Its function is primarily political: to end cycles of revenge, organize intertribal solidarity, establish rules of collective responsibility, and ensure common defense.

No article imposes a shared belief, ritual, or confession. The text does not seek to produce orthodoxy, but social stability. The law is minimal, pragmatic, and oriented toward coexistence.

This logic is deeply compatible with the Jewish concept of berĂźt: the covenant does not eliminate plurality, it regulates it.

Jews and Christians as full members of the umma

Contrary to later confessional readings, the Charter explicitly states that Jews are members of the umma. They are not external allies or subordinate protégés, but constitutive partners of the political community.

The umma is therefore not defined by adherence to a single faith, but by participation in the covenant. It includes:

  • the Meccan emigrants (MuhājirĆ«n),

  • the Medinan clans (AnáčŁÄr),

  • the established Jewish tribes,

  • other monotheistic groups—including Christians—present on an individual or clan basis.

In this context, Judaism and Christianity are not outside the community, but integrated into the same political structure. Religious differences are neither denied nor hierarchized; they are simply outside the scope of the pact.

Umma: an inclusive political community

The term umma, as used in the Charter, refers to a community of responsibility, not a church. It refers to a legal and military confederation based on loyalty to the pact and solidarity in the face of external threats.

Being a member of the umma means:

  • participating in the common defense,
  • respecting the clauses of internal non-violence,
  • accepting a shared arbitration framework.

This definition fully includes Jews and other monotheists. The umma is therefore, at this stage, multiconfessional in principle.

Muslim and muÊŸmin: non-denominational categories

In the context of the Charter, the terms Muslim and muÊŸmin do not yet refer to exclusive religious affiliations.

  • Muslim describes someone who acts loyally, respects the alliance, and does not betray the pact.
  • MuÊŸmin, derived from the root ÊŸ-m-n (security, trust), refers to someone who enters into a relationship of trust.

These categories can apply to Jews or Christians as long as their behavior meets the requirements of the pact. The distinction is ethical and political, not theological.

A umma before Islam as a religion

The Charter of Medina thus bears witness to a time before Islam was established as an institutional religion. It describes an inclusive umma, where Jews, Christians, and other monotheistic groups are full members of a political community governed by the covenant.

This observation helps us understand the subsequent tension: when the umma was redefined as an exclusive religious community, Jews and Christians did not leave the community by breaking away, but through retroactive reclassification of vocabulary.

The historical strength of the Charter lies precisely in this point: it preserves the memory of a time when community preceded religion, when the alliance took precedence over orthodoxy, and when plurality was not a problem to be solved, but a fact to be organized.

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2. From political confederation to theological closure

The moment of crisis: conflict, rupture, and rewriting of the pact

The pluralistic dynamic promoted by the Charter of Medina did not remain in a neutral historical space. It was quickly subjected to internal tensions related to war, ruptures in alliances, and the recomposition of power. Conflicts with certain Jewish tribes, armed clashes, and the gradual assertion of Muhammad’s authority as supreme arbiter altered the initial framework of the pact.

At this stage, it was not yet a theology in the strict sense, but rather a political hardening. Plurality remained formally accepted, but it was now conditional on the recognition of a central authority. The pact ceased to be strictly horizontal; it became asymmetrical. This transformation marked a first decisive shift: the alliance was no longer merely contractual, it became subordinate.

This shift did not immediately abolish pluralism, but it weakened its internal logic. Coexistence was now based less on reciprocity than on loyalty to a decision-making center.

The closure of the scriptural debate

A major indication of this turning point is the gradual disappearance of any real scriptural debate with other monotheistic traditions. While the initial framework allowed for the coexistence of distinct legal norms and textual references, the rise of a central authority led to the closure of the hermeneutic field.

Jewish texts were no longer considered parallel normative systems, but traditions outside a now unified order. This closure did not yet stem from an elaborate doctrine, but from a political necessity: the existence of normative pluralities became incompatible with the assertion of stable central power.

Thus, it is not theological divergence that causes exclusion, but the structural incompatibility between legal pluralism and political centralization.

The reinterpretation of vocabulary: from an open lexicon to exclusive categories

It is in this context that a decisive transformation of vocabulary takes place. Terms that were initially open and behavioral gradually acquired an exclusive identity value.

  • Muslim ceased to refer to someone who respected the pact and became a member of a distinct group.

  • MuÊŸmin moved away from the logic of trust and contractual fidelity to refer to a standardized inner belief.

  • Umma tightened around a homogeneous core, now defined by adherence to the same doctrinal framework.

This evolution did not correspond to a sudden break, but rather to a cumulative reinterpretation. The words did not change; their semantic field contracted. Language, initially functional, became ontological.

From pact to norm: the birth of a religious order

The transition from confederation to established religion occurs when the pact ceases to be an instrument of coexistence and becomes a criterion of belonging. Political loyalty is gradually redefined as religious fidelity.

This process is foreign to the Jewish logic of the covenant, where the plurality of nations remains structural. It corresponds more to an emerging imperial logic, in which political unity requires normative homogeneity.

The Law, initially minimal and pragmatic, becomes denser. It becomes prescriptive in the strong sense, bearing an exclusive truth. This moment marks the emergence of an Islam in the process of religious institutionalization, distinct from neighboring monotheistic traditions.

The erasure of pluralism as a condition of unity

The gradual exclusion of divergence is not presented as a rupture, but as a clarification. The memory of the initial pluralism is preserved, but reinterpreted through a theological lens that neutralizes it.

Jews, once full members of the political community, are now located outside the umma. Their status is no longer that of partners, but of distinct groups subject to a majority order.

This shift is not simply a matter of religious hostility. It responds to a logic of identity construction: for a unified religious system to be established, plurality must be reclassified as otherness.

A retrospective reinterpretation: the Charter as a founding myth

The transmission of the text of the Charter by the historiographers of the 8th and 9th centuries was part of an already theologized framework. The document was then reinterpreted as the founding act of a unified religious community, rather than as a circumstantial multicultural pact.

This retrospective reinterpretation created an internal tension: a pluralistic text was integrated into an exclusive doctrinal narrative. The Charter ceased to be a testimony to coexistence and became a founding myth, legitimizing an already established religious order.

This transformation sheds light on the ambiguous status of the document: fundamental not for Islamic theology, but for understanding the transition from a pluralistic political order to a unified religious system.

Interim conclusion

Part II highlights a process of gradual closure: what was initially an open vocabulary, inscribed in a logic of pact, becomes a language of exclusive identity. This shift is not the result of a sudden revelation or a doctrinal break, but of a political and hermeneutic reconfiguration.

The Charter of Medina thus appears as the site of a major historical shift: one in which a multicultural alliance is transformed, in successive layers, into the symbolic foundation of an institutional religion. This dynamic paved the way for the Umayyad turning point, when imperial centralization and the theologization of vocabulary reached their full maturity.

3. The Umayyad turning point: from inherited plurality to imperial unification

Change of scale: from city-pact to empire

The Umayyad turning point marks a decisive change of scale. Whereas the Medina Charter operated within the limited space of a pluralistic city regulated by a pact, Umayyad power was based on an imperial, territorial, and administrative logic. This structural transformation imposed new constraints: governing an empire required a unifying, stable, and transmissible norm.

In this context, the original pluralism inherited from the Medina period became difficult to sustain. The coexistence of multiple legal and identity systems, tolerable at the level of a local confederation, became a factor of fragility for a centralized power. Unification was no longer merely political; it became normative.

Theologization as a response to the imperial imperative

The theologization of vocabulary is not a purely religious phenomenon. It is a functional response to the imperial imperative. In order to administer, collect taxes, administer justice, and mobilize populations, the government must have clear, exclusive, and hierarchical categories at its disposal.

The terms Muslim, muÊŸmin, and umma, which were still open and relational in their ancient usage, gradually became stabilized as categories of belonging. This fixation made it possible to clearly distinguish between:

  • those who were fully subject to the imperial order,
  • those who were integrated into it in a subordinate manner,
  • and those who were outside it.

Theology thus became a tool for political clarification. It provided the authorities with a language capable of producing unity where the pact had produced coexistence.

Exclusion as a mechanism of stabilization

In this new framework, exclusion is not presented as arbitrary violence, but as a mechanism of stabilization. Defining a homogeneous religious umma makes it possible to transform inherited diversity into structured otherness.

Jews and Christians, who could initially be included in a political community based on the covenant, are now located outside the community of believers. Their status becomes legally and symbolically distinct. This externalization is not only doctrinal; it is administrative and fiscal.

The transition is decisive: difference is no longer managed through internal plurality, but through separation.

The establishment of the narrative of origins

It was also during the Umayyad period that the narrative of origins was consolidated. Earlier texts were collected, ordered, and reread in light of the imperial order in place. In this context, the Charter of Medina ceased to be perceived as a circumstantial historical compromise.

It became a founding text, supposed to contain from the outset the religious categories that had now been stabilized. This reinterpretation produced an illusion of continuity: what was the result of political and theological evolution appeared to be a primitive given.

The historicity of vocabulary was thus neutralized. Words seemed to have always carried the meaning they acquired later.

Break with the Semitic logic of the covenant

From the perspective of Jewish thinking on the covenant, this turning point constitutes a profound break. The biblical berĂźt accepts the plurality of nations as a structural given of human history. Unity is always relational and never absorbing.

Conversely, Umayyad unification is based on a logic of homogenization. The Law is no longer a minimal framework for coexistence, but the expression of a single truth linking identity, norms, and belief. The transition from covenant to orthodoxy marks an anthropological change: belonging now takes precedence over practice.

A religion built on politics

Part III thus allows us to clearly formulate the central hypothesis: Islam as an institutional religion does not precede the empire; it develops alongside it. Religious language stabilizes at a time when power needs fixed categories.

The Charter of Medina is therefore not the starting point of a finished religion, but one of the materials reinterpreted by an imperial order in search of legitimacy. This reversal of perspective allows us to understand the permanent tension between the pluralism of origins and the exclusivism of classical forms.

Interim conclusion

The Umayyad turning point appears to be the moment when vocabulary was captured by the state. What was once part of the grammar of alliance became the language of identity. Plurality, which was a constituent part of the initial pact, was reclassified as otherness.

This change was neither a simple religious hardening nor a moral betrayal. It responded to a historical necessity: governing an empire requires clear symbolic boundaries. Understanding this process allows us to restore the Charter of Medina to its true status: not that of a founding dogma, but that of a precious witness to a time before institutional religion.

4. General conclusion — From alliance to orthodoxy

This study has proposed a reinterpretation of the Charter of Medina that breaks with its apologetic or doctrinal use. Far from being the founding text of an established religion, the Charter appears to be a pluralistic political pact, inscribed in a Semitic logic of alliance, where coexistence takes precedence over unification, and where the categories of muslim, muÊŸmin, and umma belong to a behavioral and relational register, not a confessional one.

Analysis of the successive layers of the text has revealed a gradual shift, rather than a sudden one: from a multicultural confederation based on loyalty and shared responsibility to an increasingly normative, then identity-based language. This shift did not result from a new revelation, but from a political reconfiguration made necessary by the centralization of power.

The Umayyad turning point was the decisive moment in this transformation. Confronted with the imperial scale, the authorities appropriated the vocabulary inherited from the pact and fixed it in exclusive categories. Theology then became an instrument of stabilization, producing unity where the alliance had produced plurality. The Charter is reinterpreted retrospectively as a founding myth, erasing the historicity of its terms and naturalizing a belated exclusivism.

This reinterpretation allows us to understand a structural tension that is still active today: between an original pluralism, enshrined in the practice of the alliance, and a unified religious order, constructed in and by the empire. It also sheds light on the specificity of the break with Jewish berĂźt thought, for which the plurality of peoples remains constitutive of human history.

By restoring the Medina Charter’s status as a transitional text, this study does not seek to close the debate, but rather to shift its terms. The question is not whether Islam is essentially pluralistic or exclusive, but rather to recognize that its religious language has been historically constructed, in layers, from a political pact that predates institutional religion.

Understanding this process means reopening the space for a critical, historical, and non-confessional reading of the texts, which alone is capable of bringing together alliance, power, and religion in the Semitic world.

1. La Charte de Médine : une umma explicitement plurielle

Médine : une cité majoritairement juive avant le pacte

Toute lecture historiquement rigoureuse de la Charte de MĂ©dine doit partir d’un fait souvent minimisĂ© dans les reconstructions ultĂ©rieures : Yathrib/Medina n’est pas, au dĂ©but du VIIᔉ siĂšcle, une citĂ© majoritairement musulmane. Sur les cinq grands ensembles tribaux structurant la ville et son territoire immĂ©diat, trois sont des tribus juives Ă©tablies (BanĆ« QaynuqÄÊż, BanĆ« Naឍīr, BanĆ« Qurayáș“a), disposant de leurs propres rĂ©seaux Ă©conomiques, de leurs alliances, de leur droit et de leur mĂ©moire politique.

Les clans arabes — Aws et Khazraj — sont eux-mĂȘmes traversĂ©s par des affiliations religieuses diverses et ne constituent pas un bloc confessionnel homogĂšne. La prĂ©dication de Muhammad s’insĂšre donc dans un espace dĂ©jĂ  pluraliste, oĂč le judaĂŻsme n’est ni marginal ni extĂ©rieur, mais structurel.

Ce point est décisif : la Charte ne vient pas intégrer des minorités dans une communauté musulmane préexistante ; elle organise un espace commun dont les Juifs sont des acteurs centraux.

Statut du document : un pacte d’alliance, non un texte religieux

La Charte de MĂ©dine relĂšve du genre sĂ©mitique du pacte d’alliance et non d’un acte fondateur religieux. Sa fonction est d’abord politique : mettre fin aux cycles de vengeance, organiser la solidaritĂ© intertribale, fixer des rĂšgles de responsabilitĂ© collective et assurer la dĂ©fense commune.

Aucun article n’impose une croyance, un rite ou une confession partagĂ©e. Le texte ne cherche pas Ă  produire une orthodoxie, mais une stabilitĂ© sociale. La Loi y est minimale, pragmatique, orientĂ©e vers la coexistence.

Cette logique est profondĂ©ment compatible avec la pensĂ©e juive de la berĂźt : l’alliance ne supprime pas la pluralitĂ©, elle la rĂ©gule.

Les Juifs et les chrétiens comme membres à part entiÚre de la umma

Contrairement aux lectures confessionnelles ultérieures, la Charte affirme explicitement que les Juifs sont membres de la umma. Ils ne sont pas des alliés extérieurs, ni des protégés subordonnés, mais des partenaires constitutifs de la communauté politique.

L’umma n’est donc pas dĂ©finie par l’adhĂ©sion Ă  une foi unique, mais par la participation Ă  l’alliance. Elle inclut :

  • les Ă©migrĂ©s mecquois (MuhājirĆ«n),
  • les clans mĂ©dinois (AnáčŁÄr),
  • les tribus juives Ă©tablies,
  • d’autres groupes monothĂ©istes — y compris des chrĂ©tiens — prĂ©sents Ă  titre individuel ou clanique.

Dans ce cadre, le judaĂŻsme et le christianisme ne sont pas extĂ©rieurs Ă  la communautĂ©, mais intĂ©grĂ©s dans une mĂȘme structure politique. La divergence religieuse n’est ni niĂ©e ni hiĂ©rarchisĂ©e ; elle est simplement hors du champ du pacte.

Umma : une communauté politique inclusive

Le terme umma, tel qu’il est employĂ© dans la Charte, dĂ©signe une communautĂ© de responsabilitĂ©, non une Église. Il renvoie Ă  une confĂ©dĂ©ration juridique et militaire, fondĂ©e sur la loyautĂ© au pacte et la solidaritĂ© face aux menaces extĂ©rieures.

Être membre de la umma signifie :

  • participer Ă  la dĂ©fense commune,
  • respecter les clauses de non‑violence interne,
  • accepter un cadre d’arbitrage partagĂ©.

Cette dĂ©finition inclut pleinement les Juifs et les autres monothĂ©istes. L’umma est donc, Ă  ce stade, multiconfessionnelle par principe.

Muslim et muÊŸmin : catĂ©gories non confessionnelles

Dans l’horizon de la Charte, les termes muslim et muÊŸmin ne dĂ©signent pas encore des appartenances religieuses exclusives.

  • Muslim qualifie celui qui agit loyalement, respecte l’alliance et ne trahit pas le pacte.
  • MuÊŸmin, issu de la racine ʟ‑m‑n (sĂ©curitĂ©, confiance), dĂ©signe celui qui entre dans une relation de fiabilitĂ©.

Ces catĂ©gories peuvent s’appliquer Ă  des Juifs ou Ă  des chrĂ©tiens dĂšs lors que leur comportement correspond aux exigences du pacte. La distinction est Ă©thique et politique, non thĂ©ologique.

Une umma avant l’islam comme religion

La Charte de MĂ©dine tĂ©moigne ainsi d’un moment antĂ©rieur Ă  la constitution de l’islam comme religion institutionnelle. Elle dĂ©crit une umma inclusive, oĂč Juifs, chrĂ©tiens et autres groupes monothĂ©istes sont membres Ă  part entiĂšre d’une communautĂ© politique rĂ©gie par l’alliance.

Ce constat permet de comprendre la tension ultĂ©rieure : lorsque l’umma sera redĂ©finie comme communautĂ© confessionnelle exclusive, les Juifs et les chrĂ©tiens ne sortiront pas de la communautĂ© par rupture, mais par requalification rĂ©troactive du vocabulaire.

La force historique de la Charte rĂ©side prĂ©cisĂ©ment dans ce point : elle conserve la trace d’un moment oĂč la communautĂ© prĂ©cĂšde la religion, oĂč l’alliance prime sur l’orthodoxie, et oĂč la pluralitĂ© n’est pas un problĂšme Ă  rĂ©soudre, mais une donnĂ©e Ă  organiser.

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2. De la confédération politique à la clÎture théologique

Le moment de la crise : conflit, rupture et réécriture du pacte

La dynamique pluraliste portĂ©e par la Charte de MĂ©dine ne se maintient pas dans un espace historique neutre. Elle est rapidement soumise Ă  des tensions internes, liĂ©es Ă  la guerre, aux ruptures d’alliance et Ă  la recomposition du pouvoir. Les conflits avec certaines tribus juives, les affrontements armĂ©s et l’affirmation progressive de l’autoritĂ© de Muhammad comme arbitre suprĂȘme modifient le cadre initial du pacte.

À ce stade, il ne s’agit pas encore d’une thĂ©ologie au sens strict, mais d’un durcissement politique. La pluralitĂ© demeure formellement admise, mais elle est dĂ©sormais conditionnĂ©e par la reconnaissance d’une autoritĂ© centrale. Le pacte cesse d’ĂȘtre strictement horizontal ; il devient asymĂ©trique. Cette transformation marque un premier dĂ©placement dĂ©cisif : l’alliance n’est plus seulement contractuelle, elle devient subordonnĂ©e.

Ce glissement n’abolit pas immĂ©diatement le pluralisme, mais il en fragilise la logique interne. La coexistence repose dĂ©sormais moins sur la rĂ©ciprocitĂ© que sur la loyautĂ© envers un centre dĂ©cisionnel.

La fermeture du débat scripturaire

Un indice majeur de ce tournant rĂ©side dans la disparition progressive de tout vĂ©ritable dĂ©bat scripturaire avec les autres traditions monothĂ©istes. Alors que le cadre initial permettait une coexistence de normes juridiques et de rĂ©fĂ©rences textuelles distinctes, la montĂ©e en puissance d’une autoritĂ© centrale entraĂźne une clĂŽture du champ hermĂ©neutique.

Les textes juifs ne sont plus considĂ©rĂ©s comme des systĂšmes normatifs parallĂšles, mais comme des traditions extĂ©rieures Ă  un ordre dĂ©sormais unifiĂ©. Cette fermeture ne procĂšde pas encore d’une doctrine Ă©laborĂ©e, mais d’une nĂ©cessitĂ© politique : l’existence de pluralitĂ©s normatives devient incompatible avec l’affirmation d’un pouvoir central stable.

Ainsi, ce n’est pas la divergence thĂ©ologique qui provoque l’exclusion, mais l’incompatibilitĂ© structurelle entre pluralisme juridique et centralisation politique.

La relecture du vocabulaire : d’un lexique ouvert Ă  des catĂ©gories exclusives

C’est dans ce contexte que s’opĂšre une transformation dĂ©cisive du vocabulaire. Les termes initialement ouverts et comportementaux acquiĂšrent progressivement une valeur identitaire exclusive.

  • Muslim cesse de dĂ©signer celui qui respecte le pacte pour devenir l’adhĂ©rent d’un groupe distinct.
  • MuÊŸmin se dĂ©tache de la logique de confiance et de fidĂ©litĂ© contractuelle pour dĂ©signer une croyance intĂ©rieure normĂ©e.
  • Umma se resserre autour d’un noyau homogĂšne, dĂ©sormais dĂ©fini par l’adhĂ©sion Ă  un mĂȘme rĂ©fĂ©rentiel doctrinal.

Cette évolution ne correspond pas à une rupture brutale, mais à une réinterprétation cumulative. Les mots ne changent pas ; leur champ sémantique se contracte. Le langage, initialement fonctionnel, devient ontologique.

Du pacte à la norme : naissance d’un ordre religieux

Le passage de la confĂ©dĂ©ration Ă  la religion instituĂ©e s’opĂšre lorsque le pacte cesse d’ĂȘtre un instrument de coexistence pour devenir un critĂšre d’appartenance. La loyautĂ© politique est progressivement redĂ©finie comme fidĂ©litĂ© religieuse.

Ce processus est Ă©tranger Ă  la logique juive de l’alliance, oĂč la pluralitĂ© des nations demeure structurelle. Il correspond davantage Ă  une logique impĂ©riale Ă©mergente, dans laquelle l’unitĂ© politique exige une homogĂ©nĂ©itĂ© normative.

La Loi, initialement minimale et pragmatique, se densifie. Elle devient prescriptive au sens fort, porteuse d’une vĂ©ritĂ© exclusive. Ce moment marque l’émergence d’un islam en voie d’institutionnalisation religieuse, distinct des traditions monothĂ©istes voisines.

L’effacement du pluralisme comme condition de l’unitĂ©

L’exclusion progressive de la divergence n’est pas prĂ©sentĂ©e comme une rupture, mais comme une clarification. La mĂ©moire du pluralisme initial est conservĂ©e, mais relue Ă  travers une grille thĂ©ologique qui la neutralise.

Les Juifs, autrefois membres Ă  part entiĂšre de la communautĂ© politique, sont dĂ©sormais situĂ©s Ă  l’extĂ©rieur de l’umma. Leur statut n’est plus celui de partenaires, mais de groupes distincts soumis Ă  un ordre majoritaire.

Ce dĂ©placement ne relĂšve pas d’une simple hostilitĂ© religieuse. Il rĂ©pond Ă  une logique de construction identitaire : pour qu’un systĂšme religieux unifiĂ© se constitue, la pluralitĂ© doit ĂȘtre requalifiĂ©e comme altĂ©ritĂ©.

Une relecture rétrospective : la Charte comme mythe fondateur

La transmission du texte de la Charte par les historiographes des VIIIᔉ et IXᔉ siĂšcles s’inscrit dans un cadre dĂ©jĂ  thĂ©ologisĂ©. Le document est alors relu comme l’acte fondateur d’une communautĂ© religieuse unifiĂ©e, et non comme un pacte multiculturel circonstanciel.

Cette relecture rĂ©trospective produit une tension interne : un texte pluraliste est intĂ©grĂ© dans un rĂ©cit doctrinal exclusif. La Charte cesse d’ĂȘtre un tĂ©moignage de coexistence pour devenir un mythe d’origine, lĂ©gitimant un ordre religieux dĂ©jĂ  constituĂ©.

Cette transformation Ă©claire le statut ambigu du document : fondamental non pour la thĂ©ologie islamique, mais pour la comprĂ©hension du passage d’un ordre politique pluraliste Ă  un systĂšme religieux unifiĂ©.

Conclusion intermédiaire

La Partie II met en Ă©vidence un processus de fermeture progressive : ce qui Ă©tait initialement un vocabulaire ouvert, inscrit dans une logique de pacte, devient un langage de l’identitĂ© exclusive. Ce basculement ne relĂšve ni d’une rĂ©vĂ©lation soudaine ni d’une rupture doctrinale, mais d’une reconfiguration politique et hermĂ©neutique.

La Charte de MĂ©dine apparaĂźt ainsi comme le lieu d’un glissement historique majeur : celui par lequel une alliance multiculturelle se transforme, par strates successives, en fondement symbolique d’une religion institutionnelle. Cette dynamique prĂ©pare le terrain du tournant omeyyade, oĂč la centralisation impĂ©riale et la thĂ©ologisation du vocabulaire atteindront leur pleine maturitĂ©.

3. Le tournant omeyyade : de la pluralitĂ© hĂ©ritĂ©e Ă  l’unification impĂ©riale

Changement d’échelle : de la citĂ©-pacte Ă  l’empire

Le tournant omeyyade marque un changement d’échelle dĂ©cisif. LĂ  oĂč la Charte de MĂ©dine opĂ©rait dans l’espace limitĂ© d’une citĂ© plurielle rĂ©gulĂ©e par un pacte, le pouvoir omeyyade s’inscrit dans une logique impĂ©riale, territoriale et administrative. Cette transformation structurelle impose de nouvelles contraintes : gouverner un empire suppose une norme unificatrice, stable et transmissible.

Dans ce contexte, le pluralisme originel hĂ©ritĂ© de la pĂ©riode mĂ©dinoise devient difficilement soutenable. La coexistence de rĂ©gimes juridiques et identitaires multiples, tolĂ©rable Ă  l’échelle d’une confĂ©dĂ©ration locale, devient un facteur de fragilitĂ© pour un pouvoir centralisĂ©. L’unification n’est plus seulement politique ; elle devient normative.

La thĂ©ologisation comme rĂ©ponse Ă  l’impĂ©ratif impĂ©rial

La thĂ©ologisation du vocabulaire n’est pas un phĂ©nomĂšne purement religieux. Elle constitue une rĂ©ponse fonctionnelle Ă  l’impĂ©ratif impĂ©rial. Pour administrer, lever l’impĂŽt, rendre la justice et mobiliser les populations, le pouvoir doit disposer de catĂ©gories claires, exclusives et hiĂ©rarchisĂ©es.

Les termes muslim, muÊŸmin et umma, encore ouverts et relationnels dans leur usage ancien, sont progressivement stabilisĂ©s comme catĂ©gories d’appartenance. Cette fixation permet de distinguer nettement :

  • ceux qui relĂšvent pleinement de l’ordre impĂ©rial,
  • ceux qui y sont intĂ©grĂ©s de maniĂšre subordonnĂ©e,
  • ceux qui en sont extĂ©rieurs.

La thĂ©ologie devient ainsi un outil de clarification politique. Elle fournit au pouvoir un langage capable de produire de l’unitĂ© lĂ  oĂč le pacte produisait de la coexistence.

L’exclusion comme mĂ©canisme de stabilisation

Dans ce nouveau cadre, l’exclusion ne se prĂ©sente pas comme une violence arbitraire, mais comme un mĂ©canisme de stabilisation. DĂ©finir une umma religieuse homogĂšne permet de transformer la diversitĂ© hĂ©ritĂ©e en altĂ©ritĂ© structurĂ©e.

Les Juifs et les chrĂ©tiens, qui pouvaient initialement ĂȘtre inclus dans une communautĂ© politique fondĂ©e sur l’alliance, sont dĂ©sormais situĂ©s Ă  l’extĂ©rieur de la communautĂ© des croyants. Leur statut devient juridiquement et symboliquement distinct. Cette extĂ©riorisation n’est pas seulement doctrinale ; elle est administrative et fiscale.

Le passage est dĂ©cisif : la diffĂ©rence n’est plus gĂ©rĂ©e par la pluralitĂ© interne, mais par la sĂ©paration.

La fixation du récit des origines

C’est Ă©galement Ă  l’époque omeyyade que se consolide le rĂ©cit des origines. Les textes antĂ©rieurs sont collectĂ©s, ordonnĂ©s et relus Ă  la lumiĂšre de l’ordre impĂ©rial en place. La Charte de MĂ©dine, dans ce cadre, cesse d’ĂȘtre perçue comme un compromis historique circonstanciel.

Elle devient un texte fondateur, censĂ© contenir dĂšs l’origine les catĂ©gories religieuses dĂ©sormais stabilisĂ©es. Cette relecture produit une illusion de continuitĂ© : ce qui est le rĂ©sultat d’une Ă©volution politique et thĂ©ologique apparaĂźt comme une donnĂ©e primitive.

L’historicitĂ© du vocabulaire se trouve ainsi neutralisĂ©e. Les mots semblent avoir toujours portĂ© le sens qu’ils ont acquis tardivement.

Rupture avec la logique sĂ©mitique de l’alliance

Du point de vue de la pensĂ©e juive de l’alliance, ce tournant constitue une rupture profonde. La berĂźt biblique accepte la pluralitĂ© des nations comme donnĂ©e structurelle de l’histoire humaine. L’unitĂ© y est toujours relationnelle et jamais absorbante.

À l’inverse, l’unification omeyyade repose sur une logique d’homogĂ©nĂ©isation. La Loi n’est plus un cadre minimal de coexistence, mais l’expression d’une vĂ©ritĂ© unique liant identitĂ©, norme et croyance. Le passage de l’alliance Ă  l’orthodoxie marque un changement anthropologique : l’appartenance prime dĂ©sormais sur la pratique.

Une religion construite Ă  partir du politique

La Partie III permet ainsi de formuler clairement l’hypothĂšse centrale : l’islam comme religion institutionnelle ne prĂ©cĂšde pas l’empire ; il s’élabore avec lui. Le langage religieux se stabilise au moment oĂč le pouvoir a besoin de catĂ©gories fixes.

La Charte de MĂ©dine n’est donc pas le point de dĂ©part d’une religion achevĂ©e, mais l’un des matĂ©riaux rĂ©interprĂ©tĂ©s par un ordre impĂ©rial en quĂȘte de lĂ©gitimation. Ce renversement de perspective permet de comprendre la tension permanente entre le pluralisme des origines et l’exclusivisme des formes classiques.

Conclusion intermédiaire

Le tournant omeyyade apparaĂźt comme le moment oĂč le vocabulaire est capturĂ© par l’État. Ce qui relevait d’une grammaire de l’alliance devient une langue de l’identitĂ©. La pluralitĂ©, constitutive du pacte initial, est requalifiĂ©e en altĂ©ritĂ©.

Cette mutation ne relĂšve ni d’un simple durcissement religieux ni d’une trahison morale. Elle rĂ©pond Ă  une nĂ©cessitĂ© historique : gouverner un empire exige des frontiĂšres symboliques claires. Comprendre ce processus permet de restituer Ă  la Charte de MĂ©dine son vĂ©ritable statut : non celui d’un dogme fondateur, mais celui d’un tĂ©moin prĂ©cieux d’un moment antĂ©rieur Ă  la religion institutionnelle.

4. Conclusion gĂ©nĂ©rale — De l’alliance Ă  l’orthodoxie

Cette Ă©tude a proposĂ© une relecture de la Charte de MĂ©dine en rupture avec son usage apologĂ©tique ou doctrinal. Loin d’ĂȘtre le texte fondateur d’une religion constituĂ©e, la Charte apparaĂźt comme un pacte politique pluriel, inscrit dans une logique sĂ©mitique de l’alliance, oĂč la coexistence prime sur l’unification, et oĂč les catĂ©gories de muslim, muÊŸmin et umma relĂšvent d’un registre comportemental et relationnel, non confessionnel.

L’analyse des strates successives du texte a mis en Ă©vidence un glissement progressif, non brutal : d’une confĂ©dĂ©ration multiculturelle fondĂ©e sur la loyautĂ© et la responsabilitĂ© partagĂ©e, vers un langage de plus en plus normatif, puis identitaire. Ce basculement ne procĂšde pas d’une rĂ©vĂ©lation nouvelle, mais d’une reconfiguration politique rendue nĂ©cessaire par la centralisation du pouvoir.

Le tournant omeyyade constitue le moment dĂ©cisif de cette transformation. ConfrontĂ© Ă  l’échelle impĂ©riale, le pouvoir capte le vocabulaire hĂ©ritĂ© du pacte et le fixe en catĂ©gories exclusives. La thĂ©ologie devient alors un instrument de stabilisation, produisant de l’unitĂ© lĂ  oĂč l’alliance produisait de la pluralitĂ©. La Charte est relue rĂ©trospectivement comme mythe fondateur, effaçant l’historicitĂ© de ses termes et naturalisant un exclusivisme tardif.

Cette relecture permet de comprendre une tension structurelle toujours active : entre un pluralisme originaire, inscrit dans la pratique de l’alliance, et un ordre religieux unifiĂ©, construit dans et par l’empire. Elle Ă©claire Ă©galement la spĂ©cificitĂ© de la rupture avec la pensĂ©e juive de la berĂźt, pour laquelle la pluralitĂ© des peuples demeure constitutive de l’histoire humaine.

En restituant Ă  la Charte de MĂ©dine son statut de texte de transition, cette Ă©tude n’entend pas clore le dĂ©bat, mais en dĂ©placer les termes. La question n’est pas de savoir si l’islam est par essence pluraliste ou exclusif, mais de reconnaĂźtre que son langage religieux s’est constituĂ© historiquement, par strates, Ă  partir d’un pacte politique antĂ©rieur Ă  la religion institutionnelle.

Comprendre ce processus, c’est rouvrir l’espace d’une lecture critique, historique et non confessionnelle des textes, seule Ă  mĂȘme de penser ensemble alliance, pouvoir et religion dans le monde sĂ©mitique.