1. The Charter of Medina: an explicitly pluralistic umma
Medina: a predominantly Jewish city before the pact
Any historically rigorous reading of the Medina Charter must start from a fact that is often downplayed in subsequent reconstructions: at the beginning of the 7th century, Yathrib/Medina was not a predominantly Muslim city. Of the five major tribal groups that structured the city and its immediate territory, three were established Jewish tribes (BanĆ« QaynuqÄÊż, BanĆ« NaážÄ«r, BanĆ« Qurayáșa), with their own economic networks, alliances, laws, and political memory.
The Arab clansâAws and Khazrajâwere themselves divided by various religious affiliations and did not constitute a homogeneous confessional bloc. Muhammadâs preaching therefore took place in an already pluralistic space, where Judaism was neither marginal nor external, but structural.
This point is decisive: the Charter does not integrate minorities into a pre-existing Muslim community; it organizes a common space in which Jews are central actors.
Status of the document: a covenant, not a religious text
The Charter of Medina belongs to the Semitic genre of covenant and is not a religious founding document. Its function is primarily political: to end cycles of revenge, organize intertribal solidarity, establish rules of collective responsibility, and ensure common defense.
No article imposes a shared belief, ritual, or confession. The text does not seek to produce orthodoxy, but social stability. The law is minimal, pragmatic, and oriented toward coexistence.
This logic is deeply compatible with the Jewish concept of berĂźt: the covenant does not eliminate plurality, it regulates it.
Jews and Christians as full members of the umma
Contrary to later confessional readings, the Charter explicitly states that Jews are members of the umma. They are not external allies or subordinate protégés, but constitutive partners of the political community.
The umma is therefore not defined by adherence to a single faith, but by participation in the covenant. It includes:
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the Meccan emigrants (MuhÄjirĆ«n),
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the Medinan clans (AnáčŁÄr),
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the established Jewish tribes,
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other monotheistic groupsâincluding Christiansâpresent on an individual or clan basis.
In this context, Judaism and Christianity are not outside the community, but integrated into the same political structure. Religious differences are neither denied nor hierarchized; they are simply outside the scope of the pact.
Umma: an inclusive political community
The term umma, as used in the Charter, refers to a community of responsibility, not a church. It refers to a legal and military confederation based on loyalty to the pact and solidarity in the face of external threats.
Being a member of the umma means:
- participating in the common defense,
- respecting the clauses of internal non-violence,
- accepting a shared arbitration framework.
This definition fully includes Jews and other monotheists. The umma is therefore, at this stage, multiconfessional in principle.
Muslim and muÊŸmin: non-denominational categories
In the context of the Charter, the terms Muslim and muÊŸmin do not yet refer to exclusive religious affiliations.
- Muslim describes someone who acts loyally, respects the alliance, and does not betray the pact.
- MuÊŸmin, derived from the root ÊŸ-m-n (security, trust), refers to someone who enters into a relationship of trust.
These categories can apply to Jews or Christians as long as their behavior meets the requirements of the pact. The distinction is ethical and political, not theological.
A umma before Islam as a religion
The Charter of Medina thus bears witness to a time before Islam was established as an institutional religion. It describes an inclusive umma, where Jews, Christians, and other monotheistic groups are full members of a political community governed by the covenant.
This observation helps us understand the subsequent tension: when the umma was redefined as an exclusive religious community, Jews and Christians did not leave the community by breaking away, but through retroactive reclassification of vocabulary.
The historical strength of the Charter lies precisely in this point: it preserves the memory of a time when community preceded religion, when the alliance took precedence over orthodoxy, and when plurality was not a problem to be solved, but a fact to be organized.
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2. From political confederation to theological closure
The moment of crisis: conflict, rupture, and rewriting of the pact
The pluralistic dynamic promoted by the Charter of Medina did not remain in a neutral historical space. It was quickly subjected to internal tensions related to war, ruptures in alliances, and the recomposition of power. Conflicts with certain Jewish tribes, armed clashes, and the gradual assertion of Muhammadâs authority as supreme arbiter altered the initial framework of the pact.
At this stage, it was not yet a theology in the strict sense, but rather a political hardening. Plurality remained formally accepted, but it was now conditional on the recognition of a central authority. The pact ceased to be strictly horizontal; it became asymmetrical. This transformation marked a first decisive shift: the alliance was no longer merely contractual, it became subordinate.
This shift did not immediately abolish pluralism, but it weakened its internal logic. Coexistence was now based less on reciprocity than on loyalty to a decision-making center.
The closure of the scriptural debate
A major indication of this turning point is the gradual disappearance of any real scriptural debate with other monotheistic traditions. While the initial framework allowed for the coexistence of distinct legal norms and textual references, the rise of a central authority led to the closure of the hermeneutic field.
Jewish texts were no longer considered parallel normative systems, but traditions outside a now unified order. This closure did not yet stem from an elaborate doctrine, but from a political necessity: the existence of normative pluralities became incompatible with the assertion of stable central power.
Thus, it is not theological divergence that causes exclusion, but the structural incompatibility between legal pluralism and political centralization.
The reinterpretation of vocabulary: from an open lexicon to exclusive categories
It is in this context that a decisive transformation of vocabulary takes place. Terms that were initially open and behavioral gradually acquired an exclusive identity value.
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Muslim ceased to refer to someone who respected the pact and became a member of a distinct group.
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MuÊŸmin moved away from the logic of trust and contractual fidelity to refer to a standardized inner belief.
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Umma tightened around a homogeneous core, now defined by adherence to the same doctrinal framework.
This evolution did not correspond to a sudden break, but rather to a cumulative reinterpretation. The words did not change; their semantic field contracted. Language, initially functional, became ontological.
From pact to norm: the birth of a religious order
The transition from confederation to established religion occurs when the pact ceases to be an instrument of coexistence and becomes a criterion of belonging. Political loyalty is gradually redefined as religious fidelity.
This process is foreign to the Jewish logic of the covenant, where the plurality of nations remains structural. It corresponds more to an emerging imperial logic, in which political unity requires normative homogeneity.
The Law, initially minimal and pragmatic, becomes denser. It becomes prescriptive in the strong sense, bearing an exclusive truth. This moment marks the emergence of an Islam in the process of religious institutionalization, distinct from neighboring monotheistic traditions.
The erasure of pluralism as a condition of unity
The gradual exclusion of divergence is not presented as a rupture, but as a clarification. The memory of the initial pluralism is preserved, but reinterpreted through a theological lens that neutralizes it.
Jews, once full members of the political community, are now located outside the umma. Their status is no longer that of partners, but of distinct groups subject to a majority order.
This shift is not simply a matter of religious hostility. It responds to a logic of identity construction: for a unified religious system to be established, plurality must be reclassified as otherness.
A retrospective reinterpretation: the Charter as a founding myth
The transmission of the text of the Charter by the historiographers of the 8th and 9th centuries was part of an already theologized framework. The document was then reinterpreted as the founding act of a unified religious community, rather than as a circumstantial multicultural pact.
This retrospective reinterpretation created an internal tension: a pluralistic text was integrated into an exclusive doctrinal narrative. The Charter ceased to be a testimony to coexistence and became a founding myth, legitimizing an already established religious order.
This transformation sheds light on the ambiguous status of the document: fundamental not for Islamic theology, but for understanding the transition from a pluralistic political order to a unified religious system.
Interim conclusion
Part II highlights a process of gradual closure: what was initially an open vocabulary, inscribed in a logic of pact, becomes a language of exclusive identity. This shift is not the result of a sudden revelation or a doctrinal break, but of a political and hermeneutic reconfiguration.
The Charter of Medina thus appears as the site of a major historical shift: one in which a multicultural alliance is transformed, in successive layers, into the symbolic foundation of an institutional religion. This dynamic paved the way for the Umayyad turning point, when imperial centralization and the theologization of vocabulary reached their full maturity.
3. The Umayyad turning point: from inherited plurality to imperial unification
Change of scale: from city-pact to empire
The Umayyad turning point marks a decisive change of scale. Whereas the Medina Charter operated within the limited space of a pluralistic city regulated by a pact, Umayyad power was based on an imperial, territorial, and administrative logic. This structural transformation imposed new constraints: governing an empire required a unifying, stable, and transmissible norm.
In this context, the original pluralism inherited from the Medina period became difficult to sustain. The coexistence of multiple legal and identity systems, tolerable at the level of a local confederation, became a factor of fragility for a centralized power. Unification was no longer merely political; it became normative.
Theologization as a response to the imperial imperative
The theologization of vocabulary is not a purely religious phenomenon. It is a functional response to the imperial imperative. In order to administer, collect taxes, administer justice, and mobilize populations, the government must have clear, exclusive, and hierarchical categories at its disposal.
The terms Muslim, muÊŸmin, and umma, which were still open and relational in their ancient usage, gradually became stabilized as categories of belonging. This fixation made it possible to clearly distinguish between:
- those who were fully subject to the imperial order,
- those who were integrated into it in a subordinate manner,
- and those who were outside it.
Theology thus became a tool for political clarification. It provided the authorities with a language capable of producing unity where the pact had produced coexistence.
Exclusion as a mechanism of stabilization
In this new framework, exclusion is not presented as arbitrary violence, but as a mechanism of stabilization. Defining a homogeneous religious umma makes it possible to transform inherited diversity into structured otherness.
Jews and Christians, who could initially be included in a political community based on the covenant, are now located outside the community of believers. Their status becomes legally and symbolically distinct. This externalization is not only doctrinal; it is administrative and fiscal.
The transition is decisive: difference is no longer managed through internal plurality, but through separation.
The establishment of the narrative of origins
It was also during the Umayyad period that the narrative of origins was consolidated. Earlier texts were collected, ordered, and reread in light of the imperial order in place. In this context, the Charter of Medina ceased to be perceived as a circumstantial historical compromise.
It became a founding text, supposed to contain from the outset the religious categories that had now been stabilized. This reinterpretation produced an illusion of continuity: what was the result of political and theological evolution appeared to be a primitive given.
The historicity of vocabulary was thus neutralized. Words seemed to have always carried the meaning they acquired later.
Break with the Semitic logic of the covenant
From the perspective of Jewish thinking on the covenant, this turning point constitutes a profound break. The biblical berĂźt accepts the plurality of nations as a structural given of human history. Unity is always relational and never absorbing.
Conversely, Umayyad unification is based on a logic of homogenization. The Law is no longer a minimal framework for coexistence, but the expression of a single truth linking identity, norms, and belief. The transition from covenant to orthodoxy marks an anthropological change: belonging now takes precedence over practice.
A religion built on politics
Part III thus allows us to clearly formulate the central hypothesis: Islam as an institutional religion does not precede the empire; it develops alongside it. Religious language stabilizes at a time when power needs fixed categories.
The Charter of Medina is therefore not the starting point of a finished religion, but one of the materials reinterpreted by an imperial order in search of legitimacy. This reversal of perspective allows us to understand the permanent tension between the pluralism of origins and the exclusivism of classical forms.
Interim conclusion
The Umayyad turning point appears to be the moment when vocabulary was captured by the state. What was once part of the grammar of alliance became the language of identity. Plurality, which was a constituent part of the initial pact, was reclassified as otherness.
This change was neither a simple religious hardening nor a moral betrayal. It responded to a historical necessity: governing an empire requires clear symbolic boundaries. Understanding this process allows us to restore the Charter of Medina to its true status: not that of a founding dogma, but that of a precious witness to a time before institutional religion.
4. General conclusion â From alliance to orthodoxy
This study has proposed a reinterpretation of the Charter of Medina that breaks with its apologetic or doctrinal use. Far from being the founding text of an established religion, the Charter appears to be a pluralistic political pact, inscribed in a Semitic logic of alliance, where coexistence takes precedence over unification, and where the categories of muslim, muÊŸmin, and umma belong to a behavioral and relational register, not a confessional one.
Analysis of the successive layers of the text has revealed a gradual shift, rather than a sudden one: from a multicultural confederation based on loyalty and shared responsibility to an increasingly normative, then identity-based language. This shift did not result from a new revelation, but from a political reconfiguration made necessary by the centralization of power.
The Umayyad turning point was the decisive moment in this transformation. Confronted with the imperial scale, the authorities appropriated the vocabulary inherited from the pact and fixed it in exclusive categories. Theology then became an instrument of stabilization, producing unity where the alliance had produced plurality. The Charter is reinterpreted retrospectively as a founding myth, erasing the historicity of its terms and naturalizing a belated exclusivism.
This reinterpretation allows us to understand a structural tension that is still active today: between an original pluralism, enshrined in the practice of the alliance, and a unified religious order, constructed in and by the empire. It also sheds light on the specificity of the break with Jewish berĂźt thought, for which the plurality of peoples remains constitutive of human history.
By restoring the Medina Charterâs status as a transitional text, this study does not seek to close the debate, but rather to shift its terms. The question is not whether Islam is essentially pluralistic or exclusive, but rather to recognize that its religious language has been historically constructed, in layers, from a political pact that predates institutional religion.
Understanding this process means reopening the space for a critical, historical, and non-confessional reading of the texts, which alone is capable of bringing together alliance, power, and religion in the Semitic world.
1. La Charte de Médine : une umma explicitement plurielle
Médine : une cité majoritairement juive avant le pacte
Toute lecture historiquement rigoureuse de la Charte de MĂ©dine doit partir dâun fait souvent minimisĂ© dans les reconstructions ultĂ©rieures : Yathrib/Medina nâest pas, au dĂ©but du VIIá” siĂšcle, une citĂ© majoritairement musulmane. Sur les cinq grands ensembles tribaux structurant la ville et son territoire immĂ©diat, trois sont des tribus juives Ă©tablies (BanĆ« QaynuqÄÊż, BanĆ« NaážÄ«r, BanĆ« Qurayáșa), disposant de leurs propres rĂ©seaux Ă©conomiques, de leurs alliances, de leur droit et de leur mĂ©moire politique.
Les clans arabes â Aws et Khazraj â sont eux-mĂȘmes traversĂ©s par des affiliations religieuses diverses et ne constituent pas un bloc confessionnel homogĂšne. La prĂ©dication de Muhammad sâinsĂšre donc dans un espace dĂ©jĂ pluraliste, oĂč le judaĂŻsme nâest ni marginal ni extĂ©rieur, mais structurel.
Ce point est décisif : la Charte ne vient pas intégrer des minorités dans une communauté musulmane préexistante ; elle organise un espace commun dont les Juifs sont des acteurs centraux.
Statut du document : un pacte dâalliance, non un texte religieux
La Charte de MĂ©dine relĂšve du genre sĂ©mitique du pacte dâalliance et non dâun acte fondateur religieux. Sa fonction est dâabord politique : mettre fin aux cycles de vengeance, organiser la solidaritĂ© intertribale, fixer des rĂšgles de responsabilitĂ© collective et assurer la dĂ©fense commune.
Aucun article nâimpose une croyance, un rite ou une confession partagĂ©e. Le texte ne cherche pas Ă produire une orthodoxie, mais une stabilitĂ© sociale. La Loi y est minimale, pragmatique, orientĂ©e vers la coexistence.
Cette logique est profondĂ©ment compatible avec la pensĂ©e juive de la berĂźt : lâalliance ne supprime pas la pluralitĂ©, elle la rĂ©gule.
Les Juifs et les chrétiens comme membres à part entiÚre de la umma
Contrairement aux lectures confessionnelles ultérieures, la Charte affirme explicitement que les Juifs sont membres de la umma. Ils ne sont pas des alliés extérieurs, ni des protégés subordonnés, mais des partenaires constitutifs de la communauté politique.
Lâumma nâest donc pas dĂ©finie par lâadhĂ©sion Ă une foi unique, mais par la participation Ă lâalliance. Elle inclut :
- les Ă©migrĂ©s mecquois (MuhÄjirĆ«n),
- les clans mĂ©dinois (AnáčŁÄr),
- les tribus juives établies,
- dâautres groupes monothĂ©istes â y compris des chrĂ©tiens â prĂ©sents Ă titre individuel ou clanique.
Dans ce cadre, le judaĂŻsme et le christianisme ne sont pas extĂ©rieurs Ă la communautĂ©, mais intĂ©grĂ©s dans une mĂȘme structure politique. La divergence religieuse nâest ni niĂ©e ni hiĂ©rarchisĂ©e ; elle est simplement hors du champ du pacte.
Umma : une communauté politique inclusive
Le terme umma, tel quâil est employĂ© dans la Charte, dĂ©signe une communautĂ© de responsabilitĂ©, non une Ăglise. Il renvoie Ă une confĂ©dĂ©ration juridique et militaire, fondĂ©e sur la loyautĂ© au pacte et la solidaritĂ© face aux menaces extĂ©rieures.
Ătre membre de la umma signifie :
- participer à la défense commune,
- respecter les clauses de nonâviolence interne,
- accepter un cadre dâarbitrage partagĂ©.
Cette dĂ©finition inclut pleinement les Juifs et les autres monothĂ©istes. Lâumma est donc, Ă ce stade, multiconfessionnelle par principe.
Muslim et muÊŸmin : catĂ©gories non confessionnelles
Dans lâhorizon de la Charte, les termes muslim et muÊŸmin ne dĂ©signent pas encore des appartenances religieuses exclusives.
- Muslim qualifie celui qui agit loyalement, respecte lâalliance et ne trahit pas le pacte.
- MuÊŸmin, issu de la racine ÊŸâmân (sĂ©curitĂ©, confiance), dĂ©signe celui qui entre dans une relation de fiabilitĂ©.
Ces catĂ©gories peuvent sâappliquer Ă des Juifs ou Ă des chrĂ©tiens dĂšs lors que leur comportement correspond aux exigences du pacte. La distinction est Ă©thique et politique, non thĂ©ologique.
Une umma avant lâislam comme religion
La Charte de MĂ©dine tĂ©moigne ainsi dâun moment antĂ©rieur Ă la constitution de lâislam comme religion institutionnelle. Elle dĂ©crit une umma inclusive, oĂč Juifs, chrĂ©tiens et autres groupes monothĂ©istes sont membres Ă part entiĂšre dâune communautĂ© politique rĂ©gie par lâalliance.
Ce constat permet de comprendre la tension ultĂ©rieure : lorsque lâumma sera redĂ©finie comme communautĂ© confessionnelle exclusive, les Juifs et les chrĂ©tiens ne sortiront pas de la communautĂ© par rupture, mais par requalification rĂ©troactive du vocabulaire.
La force historique de la Charte rĂ©side prĂ©cisĂ©ment dans ce point : elle conserve la trace dâun moment oĂč la communautĂ© prĂ©cĂšde la religion, oĂč lâalliance prime sur lâorthodoxie, et oĂč la pluralitĂ© nâest pas un problĂšme Ă rĂ©soudre, mais une donnĂ©e Ă organiser.
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2. De la confédération politique à la clÎture théologique
Le moment de la crise : conflit, rupture et réécriture du pacte
La dynamique pluraliste portĂ©e par la Charte de MĂ©dine ne se maintient pas dans un espace historique neutre. Elle est rapidement soumise Ă des tensions internes, liĂ©es Ă la guerre, aux ruptures dâalliance et Ă la recomposition du pouvoir. Les conflits avec certaines tribus juives, les affrontements armĂ©s et lâaffirmation progressive de lâautoritĂ© de Muhammad comme arbitre suprĂȘme modifient le cadre initial du pacte.
Ă ce stade, il ne sâagit pas encore dâune thĂ©ologie au sens strict, mais dâun durcissement politique. La pluralitĂ© demeure formellement admise, mais elle est dĂ©sormais conditionnĂ©e par la reconnaissance dâune autoritĂ© centrale. Le pacte cesse dâĂȘtre strictement horizontal ; il devient asymĂ©trique. Cette transformation marque un premier dĂ©placement dĂ©cisif : lâalliance nâest plus seulement contractuelle, elle devient subordonnĂ©e.
Ce glissement nâabolit pas immĂ©diatement le pluralisme, mais il en fragilise la logique interne. La coexistence repose dĂ©sormais moins sur la rĂ©ciprocitĂ© que sur la loyautĂ© envers un centre dĂ©cisionnel.
La fermeture du débat scripturaire
Un indice majeur de ce tournant rĂ©side dans la disparition progressive de tout vĂ©ritable dĂ©bat scripturaire avec les autres traditions monothĂ©istes. Alors que le cadre initial permettait une coexistence de normes juridiques et de rĂ©fĂ©rences textuelles distinctes, la montĂ©e en puissance dâune autoritĂ© centrale entraĂźne une clĂŽture du champ hermĂ©neutique.
Les textes juifs ne sont plus considĂ©rĂ©s comme des systĂšmes normatifs parallĂšles, mais comme des traditions extĂ©rieures Ă un ordre dĂ©sormais unifiĂ©. Cette fermeture ne procĂšde pas encore dâune doctrine Ă©laborĂ©e, mais dâune nĂ©cessitĂ© politique : lâexistence de pluralitĂ©s normatives devient incompatible avec lâaffirmation dâun pouvoir central stable.
Ainsi, ce nâest pas la divergence thĂ©ologique qui provoque lâexclusion, mais lâincompatibilitĂ© structurelle entre pluralisme juridique et centralisation politique.
La relecture du vocabulaire : dâun lexique ouvert Ă des catĂ©gories exclusives
Câest dans ce contexte que sâopĂšre une transformation dĂ©cisive du vocabulaire. Les termes initialement ouverts et comportementaux acquiĂšrent progressivement une valeur identitaire exclusive.
- Muslim cesse de dĂ©signer celui qui respecte le pacte pour devenir lâadhĂ©rent dâun groupe distinct.
- MuÊŸmin se dĂ©tache de la logique de confiance et de fidĂ©litĂ© contractuelle pour dĂ©signer une croyance intĂ©rieure normĂ©e.
- Umma se resserre autour dâun noyau homogĂšne, dĂ©sormais dĂ©fini par lâadhĂ©sion Ă un mĂȘme rĂ©fĂ©rentiel doctrinal.
Cette évolution ne correspond pas à une rupture brutale, mais à une réinterprétation cumulative. Les mots ne changent pas ; leur champ sémantique se contracte. Le langage, initialement fonctionnel, devient ontologique.
Du pacte Ă la norme : naissance dâun ordre religieux
Le passage de la confĂ©dĂ©ration Ă la religion instituĂ©e sâopĂšre lorsque le pacte cesse dâĂȘtre un instrument de coexistence pour devenir un critĂšre dâappartenance. La loyautĂ© politique est progressivement redĂ©finie comme fidĂ©litĂ© religieuse.
Ce processus est Ă©tranger Ă la logique juive de lâalliance, oĂč la pluralitĂ© des nations demeure structurelle. Il correspond davantage Ă une logique impĂ©riale Ă©mergente, dans laquelle lâunitĂ© politique exige une homogĂ©nĂ©itĂ© normative.
La Loi, initialement minimale et pragmatique, se densifie. Elle devient prescriptive au sens fort, porteuse dâune vĂ©ritĂ© exclusive. Ce moment marque lâĂ©mergence dâun islam en voie dâinstitutionnalisation religieuse, distinct des traditions monothĂ©istes voisines.
Lâeffacement du pluralisme comme condition de lâunitĂ©
Lâexclusion progressive de la divergence nâest pas prĂ©sentĂ©e comme une rupture, mais comme une clarification. La mĂ©moire du pluralisme initial est conservĂ©e, mais relue Ă travers une grille thĂ©ologique qui la neutralise.
Les Juifs, autrefois membres Ă part entiĂšre de la communautĂ© politique, sont dĂ©sormais situĂ©s Ă lâextĂ©rieur de lâumma. Leur statut nâest plus celui de partenaires, mais de groupes distincts soumis Ă un ordre majoritaire.
Ce dĂ©placement ne relĂšve pas dâune simple hostilitĂ© religieuse. Il rĂ©pond Ă une logique de construction identitaire : pour quâun systĂšme religieux unifiĂ© se constitue, la pluralitĂ© doit ĂȘtre requalifiĂ©e comme altĂ©ritĂ©.
Une relecture rétrospective : la Charte comme mythe fondateur
La transmission du texte de la Charte par les historiographes des VIIIá” et IXá” siĂšcles sâinscrit dans un cadre dĂ©jĂ thĂ©ologisĂ©. Le document est alors relu comme lâacte fondateur dâune communautĂ© religieuse unifiĂ©e, et non comme un pacte multiculturel circonstanciel.
Cette relecture rĂ©trospective produit une tension interne : un texte pluraliste est intĂ©grĂ© dans un rĂ©cit doctrinal exclusif. La Charte cesse dâĂȘtre un tĂ©moignage de coexistence pour devenir un mythe dâorigine, lĂ©gitimant un ordre religieux dĂ©jĂ constituĂ©.
Cette transformation Ă©claire le statut ambigu du document : fondamental non pour la thĂ©ologie islamique, mais pour la comprĂ©hension du passage dâun ordre politique pluraliste Ă un systĂšme religieux unifiĂ©.
Conclusion intermédiaire
La Partie II met en Ă©vidence un processus de fermeture progressive : ce qui Ă©tait initialement un vocabulaire ouvert, inscrit dans une logique de pacte, devient un langage de lâidentitĂ© exclusive. Ce basculement ne relĂšve ni dâune rĂ©vĂ©lation soudaine ni dâune rupture doctrinale, mais dâune reconfiguration politique et hermĂ©neutique.
La Charte de MĂ©dine apparaĂźt ainsi comme le lieu dâun glissement historique majeur : celui par lequel une alliance multiculturelle se transforme, par strates successives, en fondement symbolique dâune religion institutionnelle. Cette dynamique prĂ©pare le terrain du tournant omeyyade, oĂč la centralisation impĂ©riale et la thĂ©ologisation du vocabulaire atteindront leur pleine maturitĂ©.
3. Le tournant omeyyade : de la pluralitĂ© hĂ©ritĂ©e Ă lâunification impĂ©riale
Changement dâĂ©chelle : de la citĂ©-pacte Ă lâempire
Le tournant omeyyade marque un changement dâĂ©chelle dĂ©cisif. LĂ oĂč la Charte de MĂ©dine opĂ©rait dans lâespace limitĂ© dâune citĂ© plurielle rĂ©gulĂ©e par un pacte, le pouvoir omeyyade sâinscrit dans une logique impĂ©riale, territoriale et administrative. Cette transformation structurelle impose de nouvelles contraintes : gouverner un empire suppose une norme unificatrice, stable et transmissible.
Dans ce contexte, le pluralisme originel hĂ©ritĂ© de la pĂ©riode mĂ©dinoise devient difficilement soutenable. La coexistence de rĂ©gimes juridiques et identitaires multiples, tolĂ©rable Ă lâĂ©chelle dâune confĂ©dĂ©ration locale, devient un facteur de fragilitĂ© pour un pouvoir centralisĂ©. Lâunification nâest plus seulement politique ; elle devient normative.
La thĂ©ologisation comme rĂ©ponse Ă lâimpĂ©ratif impĂ©rial
La thĂ©ologisation du vocabulaire nâest pas un phĂ©nomĂšne purement religieux. Elle constitue une rĂ©ponse fonctionnelle Ă lâimpĂ©ratif impĂ©rial. Pour administrer, lever lâimpĂŽt, rendre la justice et mobiliser les populations, le pouvoir doit disposer de catĂ©gories claires, exclusives et hiĂ©rarchisĂ©es.
Les termes muslim, muÊŸmin et umma, encore ouverts et relationnels dans leur usage ancien, sont progressivement stabilisĂ©s comme catĂ©gories dâappartenance. Cette fixation permet de distinguer nettement :
- ceux qui relĂšvent pleinement de lâordre impĂ©rial,
- ceux qui y sont intégrés de maniÚre subordonnée,
- ceux qui en sont extérieurs.
La thĂ©ologie devient ainsi un outil de clarification politique. Elle fournit au pouvoir un langage capable de produire de lâunitĂ© lĂ oĂč le pacte produisait de la coexistence.
Lâexclusion comme mĂ©canisme de stabilisation
Dans ce nouveau cadre, lâexclusion ne se prĂ©sente pas comme une violence arbitraire, mais comme un mĂ©canisme de stabilisation. DĂ©finir une umma religieuse homogĂšne permet de transformer la diversitĂ© hĂ©ritĂ©e en altĂ©ritĂ© structurĂ©e.
Les Juifs et les chrĂ©tiens, qui pouvaient initialement ĂȘtre inclus dans une communautĂ© politique fondĂ©e sur lâalliance, sont dĂ©sormais situĂ©s Ă lâextĂ©rieur de la communautĂ© des croyants. Leur statut devient juridiquement et symboliquement distinct. Cette extĂ©riorisation nâest pas seulement doctrinale ; elle est administrative et fiscale.
Le passage est dĂ©cisif : la diffĂ©rence nâest plus gĂ©rĂ©e par la pluralitĂ© interne, mais par la sĂ©paration.
La fixation du récit des origines
Câest Ă©galement Ă lâĂ©poque omeyyade que se consolide le rĂ©cit des origines. Les textes antĂ©rieurs sont collectĂ©s, ordonnĂ©s et relus Ă la lumiĂšre de lâordre impĂ©rial en place. La Charte de MĂ©dine, dans ce cadre, cesse dâĂȘtre perçue comme un compromis historique circonstanciel.
Elle devient un texte fondateur, censĂ© contenir dĂšs lâorigine les catĂ©gories religieuses dĂ©sormais stabilisĂ©es. Cette relecture produit une illusion de continuitĂ© : ce qui est le rĂ©sultat dâune Ă©volution politique et thĂ©ologique apparaĂźt comme une donnĂ©e primitive.
LâhistoricitĂ© du vocabulaire se trouve ainsi neutralisĂ©e. Les mots semblent avoir toujours portĂ© le sens quâils ont acquis tardivement.
Rupture avec la logique sĂ©mitique de lâalliance
Du point de vue de la pensĂ©e juive de lâalliance, ce tournant constitue une rupture profonde. La berĂźt biblique accepte la pluralitĂ© des nations comme donnĂ©e structurelle de lâhistoire humaine. LâunitĂ© y est toujours relationnelle et jamais absorbante.
Ă lâinverse, lâunification omeyyade repose sur une logique dâhomogĂ©nĂ©isation. La Loi nâest plus un cadre minimal de coexistence, mais lâexpression dâune vĂ©ritĂ© unique liant identitĂ©, norme et croyance. Le passage de lâalliance Ă lâorthodoxie marque un changement anthropologique : lâappartenance prime dĂ©sormais sur la pratique.
Une religion construite Ă partir du politique
La Partie III permet ainsi de formuler clairement lâhypothĂšse centrale : lâislam comme religion institutionnelle ne prĂ©cĂšde pas lâempire ; il sâĂ©labore avec lui. Le langage religieux se stabilise au moment oĂč le pouvoir a besoin de catĂ©gories fixes.
La Charte de MĂ©dine nâest donc pas le point de dĂ©part dâune religion achevĂ©e, mais lâun des matĂ©riaux rĂ©interprĂ©tĂ©s par un ordre impĂ©rial en quĂȘte de lĂ©gitimation. Ce renversement de perspective permet de comprendre la tension permanente entre le pluralisme des origines et lâexclusivisme des formes classiques.
Conclusion intermédiaire
Le tournant omeyyade apparaĂźt comme le moment oĂč le vocabulaire est capturĂ© par lâĂtat. Ce qui relevait dâune grammaire de lâalliance devient une langue de lâidentitĂ©. La pluralitĂ©, constitutive du pacte initial, est requalifiĂ©e en altĂ©ritĂ©.
Cette mutation ne relĂšve ni dâun simple durcissement religieux ni dâune trahison morale. Elle rĂ©pond Ă une nĂ©cessitĂ© historique : gouverner un empire exige des frontiĂšres symboliques claires. Comprendre ce processus permet de restituer Ă la Charte de MĂ©dine son vĂ©ritable statut : non celui dâun dogme fondateur, mais celui dâun tĂ©moin prĂ©cieux dâun moment antĂ©rieur Ă la religion institutionnelle.
4. Conclusion gĂ©nĂ©rale â De lâalliance Ă lâorthodoxie
Cette Ă©tude a proposĂ© une relecture de la Charte de MĂ©dine en rupture avec son usage apologĂ©tique ou doctrinal. Loin dâĂȘtre le texte fondateur dâune religion constituĂ©e, la Charte apparaĂźt comme un pacte politique pluriel, inscrit dans une logique sĂ©mitique de lâalliance, oĂč la coexistence prime sur lâunification, et oĂč les catĂ©gories de muslim, muÊŸmin et umma relĂšvent dâun registre comportemental et relationnel, non confessionnel.
Lâanalyse des strates successives du texte a mis en Ă©vidence un glissement progressif, non brutal : dâune confĂ©dĂ©ration multiculturelle fondĂ©e sur la loyautĂ© et la responsabilitĂ© partagĂ©e, vers un langage de plus en plus normatif, puis identitaire. Ce basculement ne procĂšde pas dâune rĂ©vĂ©lation nouvelle, mais dâune reconfiguration politique rendue nĂ©cessaire par la centralisation du pouvoir.
Le tournant omeyyade constitue le moment dĂ©cisif de cette transformation. ConfrontĂ© Ă lâĂ©chelle impĂ©riale, le pouvoir capte le vocabulaire hĂ©ritĂ© du pacte et le fixe en catĂ©gories exclusives. La thĂ©ologie devient alors un instrument de stabilisation, produisant de lâunitĂ© lĂ oĂč lâalliance produisait de la pluralitĂ©. La Charte est relue rĂ©trospectivement comme mythe fondateur, effaçant lâhistoricitĂ© de ses termes et naturalisant un exclusivisme tardif.
Cette relecture permet de comprendre une tension structurelle toujours active : entre un pluralisme originaire, inscrit dans la pratique de lâalliance, et un ordre religieux unifiĂ©, construit dans et par lâempire. Elle Ă©claire Ă©galement la spĂ©cificitĂ© de la rupture avec la pensĂ©e juive de la berĂźt, pour laquelle la pluralitĂ© des peuples demeure constitutive de lâhistoire humaine.
En restituant Ă la Charte de MĂ©dine son statut de texte de transition, cette Ă©tude nâentend pas clore le dĂ©bat, mais en dĂ©placer les termes. La question nâest pas de savoir si lâislam est par essence pluraliste ou exclusif, mais de reconnaĂźtre que son langage religieux sâest constituĂ© historiquement, par strates, Ă partir dâun pacte politique antĂ©rieur Ă la religion institutionnelle.
Comprendre ce processus, câest rouvrir lâespace dâune lecture critique, historique et non confessionnelle des textes, seule Ă mĂȘme de penser ensemble alliance, pouvoir et religion dans le monde sĂ©mitique.